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Part One: Scientific Principles
1: Lifelong Learning
1. Key Points
2. The Importance of Lifelong Learning
3. What is Self-Regulated Learning?
4. Fostering Self-Regulated Learning: Ass...
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Part One: Scientific Principles
1: Lifelong Learning
1. Key Points
2. The Importance of Lifelong Learning
3. What is Self-Regulated Learning?
4. Fostering Self-Regulated Learning: Assessment Tools
5. Fostering Self-Regulated Learning: Coaching
6. Fostering Self-Regulated Learning: Self-Regulated Reading
7. The Challenge of Self-Regulated Learning During Surgical Training
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 1.1 Personal and Social–Environmental Factors Contributing to Self-Regulated Learning
2. Table 1.2 Sample Items from the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI)
3. Table 1.3 SQ3R Method of Textbook Reading: Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review
2: Substrate Metabolism in Surgery
1. Key Points
2. Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
2. Glycolysis
3. The Cori Cycle
4. Gluconeogenesis
5. Pentose Phosphate Pathway
3. Lipid Metabolism
1. Lipolysis
2. Ketogenesis and Ketone Oxidation
3. Lipogenesis
4. Cholesterol Metabolism
5. Phospholipids
4. Protein Metabolism
5. The Urea Cycle
6. Cellular Energy Generation
1. Overview
2. Stage II: The Krebs Cycle—Integration of Metabolic Pathways and Oxidation of Acetyl CoA
3. Stages III and IV: Oxidative Phosphorylation
7. Biotransformation
1. Cytochromes P-450
2. Uridine Diphosphate-Glucuronyl Transferases
3. Glutathione S-transferases
4. Sulfotransferases
8. Summary
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 2.1 Amino Acids Required by Adult Humans
3: Surgical Nutrition and Metabolism
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Basic Metabolic Principles
1. Body Composition
4. Energy and Substrate Metabolism
1. Measuring Energy Expenditure
1. Indirect Calorimetry
2. Predictive Equations for Energy Expenditure
3. Predicting Caloric Need for Underweight and Obese Patients
4. Body Fuels
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Protein
4. Vitamins
5. Electrolytes and Trace Elements
5. Nutritional Assessment
1. Subjective Global Assessment
2. Anthropometric Measurements and Nutritional Indices
3. Serum Protein Levels
1. Albumin
2. Prealbumin
3. Retinol-Binding Protein
4. Transferrin
4. Nitrogen Balance
6. Overfeeding and Malnutrition
1. Overfeeding
2. Malnutrition
1. Starvation
2. Starvation versus Inflammation as the Cause of Malnutrition
3. Substrate Metabolism Changes during Stress
1. Altered Carbohydrate Metabolism
2. Altered Protein Metabolism
3. Altered Lipid Metabolism
4. Stressor-Dependent Adjustments to the Metabolic Response
1. Response to Elective Surgery and Accidental Injury
2. Metabolic Adaptations to Sepsis
3. Metabolic Response to Cancer and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
4. Age and Gender
7. Nutritional Support
1. Nutritional Support in Elective Surgery
2. Nutritional Support in Critical Care
3. Parenteral Nutrition Considerations
1. Hyperglycemia
2. Provision of Fat
3. Electrolytes
4. Enteral Nutrition Considerations
1. Gastrointestinal Function
2. Complications of Enteral Nutrition
3. Enteral Feeding Formulations
5. Macro- and Micronutrient Selection
1. Protein
2. Glutamine
3. Fatty Acids
4. Micronutrients
6. Nutritional Access
1. Parenteral Nutrition Access
2. Enteral Nutrition Access
8. Nutritional Considerations in Special Populations
1. Sepsis and Septic Shock
2. Acute Respiratory Failure
3. Acute Renal Failure
4. Acute Liver Failure
5. Complications of Gastrointestinal Surgery
6. Burns
7. Acute Pancreatitis
8. Trauma
9. Solid Organ Transplant
10. Bariatric Surgery
11. Geriatrics
12. Obesity
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 3.1 The Harris–Benedict Equation and Adjustment Using the Harris–Benedict Principle
2. Table 3.2 Fuel Reserves of a Healthy, 70-kg Adult Male
3. Table 3.3 Energy Value of Various Energy Sources
4. Table 3.4 Summary of the Daily Requirements of Vitamins, Electrolytes, and Trace Elements in a Per Os Diet by Healthy Adults
5. Table 3.5 Serum Proteins Used in Nutritional Status Assessment
6. Table 3.6 Metabolic Differences between the Response to Simple Starvation and Stress
7. Table 3.7 Differences between Elective Surgery and Accidental Injury
8. Table 3.8 Key Aspects of Perioperative Care
9. Table 3.9 Bundle Statements from the Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition''s Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of Nutrition Support Therapy in the Adult Critically Ill Patient
10. Table 3.10 TPN-Related Complications
11. Table 3.11 Composition of a Standard Total Parenteral Nutrition Formulation
12. Table 3.12 Enteral Nutrition–Related Complications
13. Table 3.13 Commonly Used Enteral Nutrition Formulations
4: The Pathogenesis of Obesity and Metabolic Disease
1. Key Points
2. Genetics of Obesity
1. Metabolic Thrift, Genetics, and Epigenetics
2. Human Metabolic Diversity and Environment
3. Physiology of Obesity
1. The Adipostat
2. Satiety and Hunger
3. Metabolic Rate
4. Adipocyte Physiology
5. The Microbiome
6. Bariatric Surgery and Weight Physiology
7. Summary
4. Pathophysiology of Metabolic Disease
1. Obesity and Metabolic Disease
2. Nutrient Excess
3. Cellular Responses to Nutrient Excess
4. Adipose Tissue Failure
5. Adipose Tissue Overflow
5. Systemic Metabolic Disease
1. Mediators of Metabolic Disease
2. Portal Overflow and Liver Disease
3. Diabetes
4. Cancer
6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Figures
5: Wound Healing
1. Key Points
2. Phases of Wound Healing
1. Hemostasis
2. Inflammatory Phase
3. Proliferation Phase
4. Remodeling Phase
3. Clinical Considerations
1. Chronic versus Acute Wounds
1. Advanced Age and Gender
2. Nutrition
3. Vitamins, Micronutrients, and Trace Elements
4. Obesity
5. Diabetes Mellitus
1. Platelets
2. Neutrophils
3. Monocytes/Macrophages
4. Endothelial Cells
5. Keratinocytes and Fibroblasts
4. Medications and Dietary Supplements
1. Glucocorticoid Steroids
1. Peripheral Vascular Disease
2. Cigarette Smoking
3. Chemotherapy and Radiation
1. Chemotherapy Drugs
2. Radiation
5. References
6. Figures
7. Tables
1. Table 5.1 Cellular and Biologic Events That Frame the Normal Wound Healing Process
6: Hemostasis
1. Key Points
2. Basic Considerations
3. Natural Anticoagulant Mechanisms
4. Fibrinolysis
5. Endothelium and Hemostasis
6. Thrombosis, Inflammation, and Resolution
1. Cell Adhesion Molecules
2. Leukocytes and Thrombosis
7. Arterial Versus Venous Thrombosis
8. Procoagulant States
1. Acquired Procoagulant States
1. Malignancy
2. Inflammatory Bowel Disease
3. Trauma
4. Lupus Anticoagulant/Antiphospholipid Syndrome (Antiphospholipid Antibody)
1. Hypercoagulability Testing
2. Inherited Procoagulant States
1. Defects with High Risk for Thrombosis
2. Defects with Lower Risk for Thrombosis
1. Resistance to APC (Factor V Leiden)
2. Prothrombin G20210A Polymorphism
3. Hyperhomocysteinemia
3. Other Disorders Associated with Thrombosis
1. Defective Fibrinolysis/Dysfibrinogenemia/Lipoprotein(a)
2. Abnormal Platelet Aggregation
4. Elevated Procoagulant Factors: VIII, IX, and XI
5. Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
9. Bleeding Disorders
1. Coagulation Factor Deficiency
2. Rare Factor Deficiencies
3. Platelet Disorders
4. Abnormalities in Fibrinolysis
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 6.1 Acquired Hypercoagulable States
2. Table 6.2 Diagnostic Criteria for Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome
3. Table 6.3 Severity and Frequency of VTE due to Hypercoagulable States
7: Inflammation
1. Key Points
2. Innate Versus Adaptive Immunity
3. Cellular Components
1. Neutrophils
1. Recruitment
2. Phagocytosis
3. Neutrophil Granules and Secretory Vesicles
4. Oxidative Burst and Oxidant Metabolites
5. Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) and NETosis
6. Regulation of Neutrophil Activity
2. Mononuclear Phagocytes
1. Recruitment
2. Phagocytosis
3. Activation
4. Antigen Presentation
3. Lymphocytes
1. B Lymphocytes
2. T Lymphocytes
4. Eosinophils
1. Recruitment and Activation
2. Granules
5. Basophils and Mast Cells
6. Platelets
1. Recruitment and Activation
2. Granules
7. Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells
4. Noncellular Components
1. Cytokines
2. Early Cytokines/Innate Immunity
1. TNFα
2. Interleukin 1
3. Chemokines
4. Interleukin 12 (NK Cell Stimulatory Factor, Cytotoxic Lymphocyte Maturation Factor)
5. Interleukin 6
6. High Mobility Group Box 1 Protein (HMGB1)
7. Interleukin 15
8. Interleukin 17
9. Interleukin 18
10. Interferons (Type I)
11. Interleukin 10 (Cytokine Synthesis Inhibiting Factor)
3. Late Cytokines/Adaptive Immunity
1. Interleukin 2 (T-Cell Growth Factor)
2. Interleukin 4
3. Interleukin 5
4. Interleukin 13
5. Interferon γ (IFNγ)
6. Transforming Growth Factor β (TGFβ)
4. Cytokines that Stimulate Hematopoiesis
5. The Complement System
6. Lipid Mediators
1. Eicosanoids
2. Cyclooxygenase Pathway (Prostaglandins)
3. Lipoxygenase Pathway (Leukotrienes and Lipoxins)
4. Platelet-Activating Factor (PAF)
7. Kinins
1. Production of Bradykinin
2. Kinin Production in Tissue
3. Cellular Kininogenase Activity
8. Neuropeptides
9. Nitric Oxide (NO)
10. Heme Oxygenase (HO)
11. Hydrogen Sulfide
5. Recognition and Activation Processes
1. Exogenous and Endogenous Danger Recognition
2. Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs)
1. S100 Proteins
2. Uric Acid
3. Mitochondrial DAMPs (MTDs)
3. Receptors for Danger Recognition
4. CD14
1. Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs)
2. RAGE
3. CD91
4. Other HSP Receptors
6. Autophagy
7. The Stress Response
1. The Acute-Phase Response
1. Acute-Phase Proteins
2. Systemic Manifestations of the Acute-Phase Response
3. Mediators of the Acute-Phase Response
4. Regulation of Acute-Phase Cytokines and Proteins
2. Reperfusion Injury
3. Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
4. Chronic Inflammation
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 7.1 Leukocyte Subsets
2. Table 7.2 Neutrophil Granules and Secretory Vesicles
3. Table 7.3 Major ROS and Their Metabolism
4. Table 7.4 Monocyte/Macrophage Products
5. Table 7.5 Transcription Factors
6. Table 7.6 Platelet-Derived Mediators
7. Table 7.7 Cytokines
8. Table 7.8 Acute-Phase Proteins
9. Table 7.9 Prostanoid Effects
8: Surgical Infections
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
1. Early Use of Appropriate Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Therapy
2. Source Control
3. Pathogen Identification
3. Intra-Abdominal Infections
1. Classification
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment
1. Community-Acquired Complicated Intra-Abdominal Infection
2. Health Care–Associated Complicated Intra-Abdominal Infection
3. Duration of Antibiotics for Complicated Intra-Abdominal Infection
4. Specific Intra-Abdominal Infections
1. Appendicitis
1. Antibiotics versus Appendectomy
2. Laparoscopic versus Open Appendectomy
3. Time to Appendectomy and Perforation Risk
4. Abscess or Phlegmon Management
5. Interval Appendectomy after Initial Nonoperative Management
2. Biliary Infections
1. Acute Cholecystitis
2. Cholangitis
3. Diverticulitis
4. Clostridium Difficile Colitis
5. Pancreatitis
5. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
1. Classification of Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
1. Uncomplicated Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
2. Complicated Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
2. Early Diagnosis and Differentiation of Necrotizing versus Nonnecrotizing SSTI
3. Early Initiation of Appropriate Empiric Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Therapy with Anti-MRSA Coverage and Consideration of Risk Factors for Specific Pathogens
4. Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections
1. Diagnostic Imaging in Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections
2. Microbiology of Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections
5. Pyomyositis
6. Surgical Site Infections
1. Epidemiology
2. Definitions
3. Risk Factors for Surgical Site Infection
1. Basic SSI Risk Index
4. Surgical Site Infection Prevention
5. Additional Strategies for Surgical Site Infection Prevention
1. Surgical Hand Antisepsis
2. Chlorhexidine as Skin Surgical Site Preparation
3. Appropriate Hair Removal
4. Normothermia Maintenance during Surgery
5. Normoglycemia Maintenance during Surgery
6. Supplemental Oxygen in Perioperative Period
6. Surgical Site Infection and Colorectal Surgery
7. Treatment of Surgical Site Infection
8. Current Challenges in Surgical Site Infection
7. References
8. Figures
1. Algorithm 8.1 Empiric antimicrobial treatment of extrabiliary cIAIs, community acquired versus health care associated. (Adapted from Solomkin JS, Mazuski JE, Bradley JS, et al. Diagnosis and management of complicated intra-abdominal infection in adults and children: guidelines by the Surgical Infection Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2010;11(1):79–109.)
2. Algorithm 8.2 Biliary infections and algorithm for diagnosis and management. (From Demehri FR, Alam HB. Evidence-based management of common gallstone-related emergencies. J Intensive Care Med 2016;31(1):3–13.)
3. Algorithm 8.3 Step-up approach to management of necrotizing infected pancreatitis. (Adapted from Besselink MG, van Santvoort HC, Nieuwenhuijs VB, et al; Dutch Acute Pancreatitis Study Group. Minimally invasive ‘step-up approach'' versus maximal necrosectomy in patients with acute necrotizing pancreatitis (PANTER trial): design and rationale of a randomized controlled multicenter trial [ISRCTN13975868]. BMC Surg 2006;6:6.)
9. Tables
1. Table 8.1 Appropriate Therapy of Surgical Infections
2. Table 8.2 Spectrum of Activity of Specific Antimicrobials for Specific Pathogens
3. Table 8.3 Antimicrobial Therapy, Surviving Sepsis Guidelines 2016
4. Table 8.4 Clinical Factors Predicting Failure of “Source Control” for Intra-Abdominal Infection
5. Table 8.5 Empiric Antimicrobial Treatment of Extrabiliary cIAIs, Community Acquired
6. Table 8.6 Severity Grading for Acute Cholecystitis: Tokyo Guidelines 2018
7. Table 8.7 Diagnosis of Cholangitis: Tokyo Guidelines 2018
8. Table 8.8 Treatment of Acute Cholangitis by Severity Classification: Tokyo Guidelines 2018 Criteria
9. Table 8.9 Antimicrobials for Treatment of Biliary Infections
10. Table 8.10 New International Classification of Acute Pancreatitis: Determinants of Severity of Acute Pancreatitis by the 2011 World Congress of the International Association of Pancreatology
11. Table 8.11 Comparison of Old and New Classification of SSTIs by FDA
12. Table 8.12 The Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis (LRINEC) Score
13. Table 8.13 CDC/NHSN Classification of Surgical Site Infections (SSIs)
14. Table 8.14 Recommended Preoperative Antimicrobials for Specific Surgical Procedures
9: Shock
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Evaluation of Shock
4. Types of Shock
1. Hypovolemic Shock
2. Cardiogenic Shock
3. Extracardiac Obstructive Shock
4. Distributive Shock
5. Septic Shock
6. Traumatic Shock
7. Neurogenic Shock
8. Physiologic Response to Hypovolemia
9. Acute Response
10. Sustained Response
5. Organ-Specific Compensatory Responses to Shock
1. Cardiac and Microvascular Response
2. Neuroendocrine Response
3. Immunoinflammatory Response
4. Pulmonary Response
5. Renal Response
6. Hepatic Response
7. Genetic Regulation of the Response to Shock
6. Loss of Compensatory Responses to Shock
7. Complications of Shock
1. Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury
2. Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome and CCI
3. Abdominal Compartment Syndrome
4. Hypothermia
5. Coagulopathy
8. Treatment
1. Fluid Therapy
1. Crystalloids
2. Colloids
3. Resuscitative Strategy
2. Permissive Hypotension
3. Transfusion
1. Type O Blood
2. Type-Specific Blood
3. Autotransfusion
4. Endpoints of Resuscitation
9. Monitors
1. Central Venous Pressure
2. Pulmonary Artery Catheter
3. Minimally Invasive CO Monitors
4. Arterial Wave Contour Analysis
5. Bedside Ultrasound and Echocardiography
10. Pharmaceutical Support
1. Inotropes and Vasopressors
1. Dopamine
2. Dobutamine
3. Epinephrine
4. Norepinephrine
5. Isoproterenol
6. Phenylephrine
7. Vasopressin
8. Amrinone and Milrinone
2. Vasodilators
1. Nitroprusside
2. Nitroglycerin
3. Miscellaneous Therapeutics
1. Corticosteroids
2. Metabolites and Electrolytes
4. Future Therapies
11. References
12. Figures
1. Algorithm 9.1 Neurohormonal response to hypovolemia. CNS, central nervous system; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone; AVP, arginine vasopressin.
2. Algorithm 9.2 Shock resuscitation algorithm. ATLS, advanced trauma life support; ACLS, advanced cardiac life support; SBP, systolic blood pressure; CVP, central venous pressure; HCT, hematocrit; VS, vital signs; TTE, transthoracic echocardiography; PAC, pulmonary artery catheter; CI, cardiac index; MAP, mean arterial pressure.
13. Tables
1. Table 9.1 Classification System and Causes of Shock
2. Table 9.2 Hemodynamic Patterns in Shock
3. Table 9.3 Classification of Hemorrhagic Shock
4. Table 9.4 Comparison of Blood Availability
5. Table 9.5 Pharmacodynamics of Inotropic/Vasoconstrictor Agents
10: Critical Care
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Hemodynamic Monitoring
1. Oxygen Transport
2. Volume Assessment
3. Fluid Responsiveness
4. Cardiac Function
4. Cardiac Arrest and Dysrhythmias
5. Pulmonary Gas Exchange
1. Oxygenation
2. Ventilation
6. Ventilator Modes
1. Pulmonary Mechanics
7. Acute Respiratory Failure
1. Diagnosis
2. Ventilator Management
1. Conventional Modes
2. Adjunctive Therapies
1. High PEEP
2. High-Frequency Ventilation
3. Airway Pressure Release Ventilation (APRV)
4. Inhaled Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin
5. Positional Therapy
6. Fluid Management
3. Rescue Therapies
1. Extracorporeal Support
3. Ventilator-Associated Events
4. Liberation from Ventilation
8. Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis
1. Incidence
2. Risk Factor Scoring
3. Approaches to Prevention of VTE
1. Screening
2. Mechanical Devices
3. Chemical
1. UFH and LMWH
2. Factor Xa Inhibitors
9. Transfusion
10. Metabolism and Nutrition
1. Metabolic Requirements and Assessment
2. Nutritional Support
3. Routes of Nutritional Support
4. Timing of Nutritional Support
5. Organ Specific Nutritional Support
6. Immunonutrition
7. Stress-Related Mucosal Disease
11. Acute Kidney Injury
1. Etiology
2. Severity
3. Treatment of Acute Kidney Injury
12. Liver Dysfunction
1. Variceal Bleeding
2. Hepatic Encephalopathy
3. Ascites and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis
4. Hepatorenal Syndrome
5. Liver Failure
13. Endocrine Issues
1. Glucose Control
2. Adrenal Insufficiency
3. Thyroid Abnormalities
14. Infectious Disease Issues
1. Sepsis Guidelines
2. Hospital Acquired Infections
15. Neurologic Issues
1. Analgesia and Sedation
2. Delirium
16. Organizational Structure of Critical Care
1. Evidence-Based Care
2. Severity of Illness
17. References
18. Figures
19. Tables
1. Table 10.1 Normal Hemodynamic Parameters
2. Table 10.2 ARDS: Comparison of AECC and Berlin Definitions
3. Table 10.3A Caprini Risk Assessment for Venous Thromboembolism (VTE) in Surgical Patients
4. Table 10.3B Caprini VTE Percentage Risk Based on Score
5. Table 10.4 VTE Prophylaxis in the ICU
6. Table 10.5 Indications for RBC Transfusion in the General Critically Ill Patient
7. Table 10.6 Factors Altering the Oxygen Dissociation Curve
8. Table 10.7 NUTRIC Score Table
9. Table 10.8 Workup for Acute Kidney Injury
10. Table 10.9 Acute Kidney Injury Severity Scores
11. Table 10.10 Sepsis Bundles
12. Table 10.11 Organ Failure Scores
11: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid–Base Balance
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Body Fluids
1. Total Body Water and Body Fluid Compartments
2. Composition of Body Fluids
3. Osmotic Activity of Body Fluids
4. Colloid Oncotic Pressure (Colloid Osmotic Pressure)
5. Osmoregulation
6. Tonicity of Body Fluids
4. Fluid Balance
1. Sodium Concentration and Water Balance
2. Volume Control
1. Osmoreceptors
2. Baroreceptor Modulation of Volume Control
3. Hormonal Mediators of Volume Control
1. Renin–Angiotensin System
2. Aldosterone
3. Atrial and Renal Natriuretic Peptides
4. Renal Prostaglandins
5. Endothelins
6. Nitric Oxide
3. Normal Water and Electrolyte Exchange
5. Normal Water Exchange
6. Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy
1. Parenteral Solutions
1. Crystalloids
2. Colloids
3. Albumin
4. Hetastarch
5. Dextrans
6. Gelatins
7. Artificial Oxygen Carriers
7. Goals of Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy
1. Maintenance Fluid Therapy
2. Maintenance Electrolyte Therapy
3. Additional Electrolyte Therapy
8. Correction of Volume Abnormalities
1. Volume Deficits
2. Volume Excess
9. Replacement of Ongoing Fluid Losses
1. Intraoperative Fluid Therapy
2. Postoperative Fluid Therapy and Monitoring
10. Electrolytes
1. Where Sodium Goes, Water Follows
1. Pseudohyponatremia
2. Hyponatremia
1. Treatment
3. Cerebral Salt Wasting and Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone
4. Hypernatremia
2. Potassium
1. Hyperkalemia
2. Hypokalemia
3. Calcium
1. Hypercalcemia
1. Treatment
2. Hypocalcemia
4. Magnesium
1. Hypermagnesemia
2. Hypomagnesemia
11. Acid–Base
1. Buffer Systems
2. Acid–Base Disturbances
3. Metabolic Acidosis
1. Anion Gap
2. Mechanisms of Metabolic Acidosis
3. Nonrenal Loss of Bicarbonate
4. Ketoacidosis
5. Lactic Acidosis
6. Renal Acidosis
7. Clinical Features of Acute Metabolic Acidosis
8. Renal Compensation
9. Respiratory Compensation
10. Treatment of Acute Metabolic Acidosis
4. Metabolic Alkalosis
1. Clinical Features
2. Respiratory Compensation
3. Treatment
5. Respiratory Alkalosis
1. Clinical Features
2. Compensatory Mechanisms
3. Treatment
6. Respiratory Acidosis
1. Clinical Features
2. Compensatory Mechanisms
3. Treatment
7. Mixed Acid–Base Disorders
8. References
9. Figures
1. Algorithm 11.1 Hyponatremia.
2. Algorithm 11.2 Acute hyperkalemia.
3. Algorithm 11.3 Guidelines for the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis.
14. Tables
1. Table 11.1 Body Fluid Compartments
2. Table 11.2 Electrolyte Concentrations of Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid Compartments
3. Table 11.3 Water Losses in a 60- to 80-kg Man
4. Table 11.4 Electrolyte Content of Commonly Used Intravenous Crystalloid Solutions
5. Table 11.5 Calculation of Maintenance Fluid Requirements
6. Table 11.6 Electrolyte Concentrations in Gastrointestinal Secretions
7. Table 11.7 Electrolyte Concentrations in Plasma and Intracellular Compartments
8. Table 11.8 Electrolyte Concentrations in Gastrointestinal Secretions
9. Table 11.9 Causes of Hypernatremia
10. Table 11.10 Causes of Hypokalemia
11. Table 11.11 Other Causes of Hypercalcemia
12. Table 11.12 Differential Diagnosis of Hypercalcemia
13. Table 11.13 Signs and Symptoms of Hypercalcemia
14. Table 11.14 Causes of Hypocalcemia
15. Table 11.15 Clinical Manifestations of Hypocalcemia
16. Table 11.16 HCO3− and PCO2 Derangements in Primary and Secondary Acid–Base Disturbances
17. Table 11.17 Compensatory Mechanisms
12: Burns: Medical, Surgical, Critical Care and Reconstruction of the Burn Patient
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
1. Children
2. Adults
3. Older Adults
4. Race and Ethnicity
5. Socioeconomic Status
4. Etiology
1. Flame Burns
2. Contact Injuries
3. Electrical Burns
4. Chemical Burns
1. General Approach to Chemical Burn Treatment
2. Types of Chemical Burns
3. Specific Types of Chemical Burns
5. Frostbite
5. Physiology of Burns
1. Burn Shock
2. Metabolic Response to Burn Injury
3. Immunologic Response to Burn Injury
6. Emergency Care
1. Airway Assessment
2. Fluid Resuscitation
3. Difficult to Resuscitate Patients
7. Burn Severity
8. Critical Care of the Burn Patient
1. Hemodynamic Monitoring
2. Ventilator Strategies
1. Treatment for Inhalational Injury
2. Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia
3. Electrolyte Abnormalities and Acute Renal Failure
1. Acute Kidney Injury
4. Metabolic Response and Nutrition
1. Glucose Control
9. Wound Management
10. Operative Interventions
1. Excision and Grafting
2. Order of Coverage
3. Extremity Treatment
4. Skin Alternatives
11. Pain Control
1. Acute Pain
2. Chronic Pain and Substance Abuse
12. Infections
1. Wound Infections
2. Vascular Catheter–Related Infections
3. Pneumonia
13. Burn Reconstruction
1. Optimizing Acute Treatment to Minimize the Need for Reconstruction
2. Hypertrophic Scarring
3. Tissue Expansion
4. Specific Anatomic Concerns
14. Associated Complications of Burn Injuries
1. Muscle Catabolism and Wasting
2. Heterotopic Ossification
3. Majorlin Ulcer
15. Clinical Research
16. Basic Science and Translational Science Research
17. Conclusion
18. References
19. Figures
1. Algorithm 12.1 Protocol for frostbite injury.
20. Tables
1. Table 12.1 Classification of Frostbite Injury
2. Table 12.2 American Burn Association Burn Center Referral Criteria
3. Table 12.3 Burn Resuscitation Flowsheet
4. Table 12.4 Pre- and Intraoperative Steps for a Burn Excision and Grafting Procedure
13: Anesthesiology and Pain Management
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Anesthetic Agents and Their Physiologic Effects
1. Inhalation Agents
2. Intravenous Sedatives/Hypnotics
3. Muscle Relaxants
4. Opioids (Narcotics) and Other Intravenous Analgesics
5. Propofol
6. Ketamine
7. Amnesics and Anxiolytics
8. Local Anesthetics
4. Neuraxial Blockade
5. Peripheral Nerve Blockade
6. Sedation Analgesia for Minor Surgical Procedures
7. Airway Evaluation for the Nonanesthesiologist
8. Risks Associated with Anesthesia
1. Cardiovascular Diseases
1. Hypertension
2. Coronary Artery Disease
3. Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with Stenting
4. Congestive Heart Failure
2. Pulmonary Disease
3. Obesity
4. Diabetes Mellitus
5. Renal Insufficiency and Failure
6. Obstructive Sleep Apnea
7. Risks Associated with Regional Techniques in Patients Being Treated with Anticoagulants
9. Preoperative Evaluation
10. Monitoring the Surgical Patient
1. Monitors of Oxygenation
2. Ventilation Monitors
3. Circulation Monitors
4. “Awareness” and Level of Consciousness Monitors
11. Common Problems in the Postoperative Period
12. Enhanced Recovery Protocols
13. Postoperative Acute Pain Management
14. Acknowledgments
15. References
16. Figures
1. Algorithm 13.1 Decision aid for preoperative cardiac evaluation prior to noncardiac surgery. This decision tree for preoperative evaluation takes into account not only the patient''s physical status but also the severity of the surgical procedure. ACC, American College of Cardiology; AHA, American Heart Association; LOE, level of evidence.
2. Algorithm 13.2 Algorithm for managing a patient on chronic buprenorphine therapy. APS, acute pain service; ICU, intensive care unit; PCA, patient-controlled anesthesia; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
17. Tables
1. Table 13.1 Common Inhalation Agents: Minimum Alveolar Concentrations and Effects
2. Table 13.2 Common Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs and Reversal Agents
3. Table 13.3 Drugs for Antagonizing Nondepolarizing Neuromuscular Blockadea
4. Table 13.4 Analgesics
5. Table 13.5 Anxiolytics and Amnesics (Benzodiazepines)
6. Table 13.6 Local Anesthetics
7. Table 13.7 Sedation Scale
8. Table 13.8 Standard Airway Examination for Nonanesthesiologists
9. Table 13.9 Clinical Predictors of Increased Perioperative Cardiovascular Risk (Myocardial Infarction, Heart Failure, Death)
10. Table 13.10 Cardiac Risk Stratification for Noncardiac Surgical Procedures
11. Table 13.11 Predictors of Postoperative Acute Kidney Injury after General Surgery Procedures
12. Table 13.12 Hospital Mortality Rates in Relation to Age, Preoperative Disease, and Surgery
13. Table 13.13 Physical Status Classification of the American Society of Anesthesiologists
14. Table 13.14 Simplified Strategy for Preoperative Testing
15. Table 13.15 Standards for Postanesthesia Care
16. Table 13.16 Postanesthesia Recovery Score
17. Table 13.17 Differential Diagnosis of Delayed Emergence
18. Table 13.18 Percentage of Patients Who Require Analgesic Injections
19. Table 13.19 Problems That Can Occur during Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA) Therapy
20. Table 13.20 Example of Orders for Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA)
21. Table 13.21 Opioid Protocols in Epidural Opiate Analgesia
14: Preoperative Risk Assessment
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Surgical Mortality, Complications, and Patient-Centered Outcomes
4. Risk Stratification
1. Risk Calculators
5. General Concepts of Preoperative Evaluation
1. Anesthesia
2. Surgical Procedure
3. Disparities
4. Age
5. Medical Comorbidity
1. Obesity/Obstructive Sleep Apnea
2. Anemia
3. Preoperative Functional Status
4. Frailty
6. Direction of Care
6. Medication Management
7. Specific Organ System Guidelines
1. Cardiovascular
1. Risk Stratification
2. Pre-Existing Cardiac Disease
3. Preoperative Testing (Algorithm 14.1)
4. Management of Antiplatelet Therapy Following Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (Algorithm 14.2)
5. Other Cardiac Medication Management
2. Pulmonary
1. Risk Stratification
2. Preoperative Evaluation
3. Preoperative Evaluation Prior to Lung Cancer Resection (Algorithm 14.3)
3. Hepatic
1. Risk Stratification
2. Preoperative Evaluation (Algorithm 14.4)
4. Renal
1. Risk Stratification
2. Preoperative Evaluation
3. Prevention of Acute Kidney Injury
8. Additional Considerations, Future Directions
9. References
10. Figures
1. Algorithm 14.1 Stepwise approach to perioperative cardiac assessment for CAD. Abbreviations: ACS, acute coronary syndrome; GDMT, Guideline-directed medical therapy; MACE, major adverse cardiovascular events; METs, metabolic equivalents; CPGs, clinical practice guidelines. (Data from Fleisher LA, et al. Circulation 2014;130[24]:2215–2245.)
2. Algorithm 14.2 Proposed algorithm for antiplatelet management in patients with PCI and noncardiac surgery. Abbreviations: BMS, bare metal stent; DES, drug eluting stent; DAPT, dual antiplatelet therapy; ASA, aspirin; P2Y12, P2Y12 inhibitor; ASAP, as soon as possible. (Data from Fleisher LA, et al. Circulation 2014;130[24]:2215–2245.)
3. Algorithm 14.3A: Physiologic evaluation prior to lung resection. Abbreviations: ThRCRI, Thoracic revised Cardiac Risk Index; ACC, American College of Cardiology; AHA, American Heart Association; CABG, coronary artery bypass graft surgery; CPET, cardiopulmonary exercise test; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention; TIA, transient ischemic attack.
4. Algorithm 14.3B: ppoFEV1 or ppoDLCO cutoff value of 60% predicted values has been chosen based on indirect evidences and expert consensus opinion. Definition of risk. Low risk: The expected risk of mortality is below 1%. Major anatomic resections can be safely performed in this group. Moderate risk: Morbidity and mortality rates may vary according to the values of split lung functions, exercise tolerance, and extent of resection. Risks and benefits of the operation should be thoroughly discussed with the patient. High risk: The risk of mortality after standard major anatomic resections may be higher than 10%. Considerable risk of severe cardiopulmonary morbidity and residual functional loss is expected. Patients should be counseled about alternative surgical (minor resections or minimally invasive surgery) or nonsurgical options. For pneumonectomy candidates, we suggest to use Q scan to calculate predicted postoperative values (ppo) of FEV1 or DLCO (ppo values = preoperative values × (1 − fraction of total perfusion for the resected lung), where the preoperative values are taken as the best measured postbronchodilator values. For lobectomy patients, segmental counting is indicated to calculate predicted postoperative values of FEV1 or DLCO (ppo values = preoperative values × (1 − y/z), where the preoperative values are taken as the best measured postbronchodilator value and the number of functional or unobstructed lung segments to be removed is y and the total number functional segments is z. Abbreviations: ppoDLCO, predicted postoperative diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide; ppoDLCO%, percent predicted postoperative diffusing capacity or carbon monoxide; ppoFEV1, predicted postoperative FEV1; ppoFEV1%, percent predicted postoperative FEV1; SCT, stair climb test; SWT, shuttle walk test; VO2 max, maximal oxygen consumption; mL/kg/min, milliliters per kilogram per minute; m, meters; CPET, cardiopulmonary exercise testing. (Adapted from Brunelli A, Kim AW, Berger KI, et al. Physiologic evaluation of the patient with lung cancer being considered for resectional surgery: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013;143[5 Suppl]:e166S–e190S.)
5. Algorithm 14.4 Proposed algorithm for preoperative evaluation of patients with liver disease. (Adapted from Hanje AJ, Patel T. Preoperative evaluation of patients with liver disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007;4[5]:266–276.)
11. Tables
1. Table 14.1 Surgical Complications: Comparison of the 10 Most Frequent Perioperative Complications between Private Sector and VA Hospitals in the Patient Safety in Surgery Study
2. Table 14.2 Common Reasons for Unplanned Surgical Readmissions
3. Table 14.3A Logistic Regression Models for Prediction of 30-Day Operative Mortality Using Preoperative Variables
4. Table 14.3B Logistic Regression Models for Prediction of 30-Day Operative Morbidity Using Preoperative Variables
5. Table 14.4 American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Physical Status Classification
6. Table 14.5 Procedural Urgency
7. Table 14.6 Preoperative Evaluation of the Geriatric Patient
8. Table 14.7 METs Equivalents
9. Table 14.8A Short Simple Screen for Functional Assessment
10. Table 14.8B Frailty Scoring (Operational Definition)
11. Table 14.9 Common Medications Which May Require Special Perioperative Management
12. Table 14.10 Revised Cardiac Risk Index
13. Table 14.11 Risk for Pulmonary Complications in Noncardiac Surgery
14. Table 14.12 ARISCAT Score for Postoperative Pulmonary Complications
15. Table 14.13 Modified Child–Turcotte–Pugh Score
16. Table 14.14 Model End-Stage Liver Disease Score (MELD) and Surgical Mortality
17. Table 14.15 General Surgery Acute Kidney Injury Risk Index Classification System
15: Measuring the Quality of Surgical Care: Surgeons, Hospitals and Systems
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Overview of Current Measures
4. Traditional Quality Measures
1. Structure
1. Strengths
2. Limitations
2. Process of Care
1. Strengths
2. Limitations
3. Outcomes
1. Strengths
2. Limitations
5. Choosing the Right Measure
6. Improving our Ability to Measure
7. Emerging Need to Measure and Improve Surgical Care Across Healthcare Systems
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 15.1 Examples, Strengths, and Limitations of Different Approaches to Measuring Surgical Performance
16: Improving Surgical Quality
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Quality Metrics
4. Quality Improvement Processes
1. Outcome Based
2. Culture and Quality
5. Quality Improvement Policy and Regulation—The Move Toward Value
6. Summary
7. References
8. Tables
1. Table 16.1 Process Metrics
17: Global Surgery
1. Global Surgery Defined
2. History
3. Challenges of Providing Surgical Care
4. Epidemiology
5. Cost-Effectiveness
6. Scaling Up Surgical Capacity
1. Workforce Shortages
2. Training and Education Models
1. Postgraduate Surgical Training Programs
2. Train the Trainer
3. Academic Partnerships and Collaborations
4. Virtual and Simulation-Based Education
5. Task Sharing
7. Logistics and Special Considerations
1. Research
2. Humanitarian Surgery Considerations
8. Getting Involved
1. Students
1. Residents and Fellows
2. Postgraduate Surgeons
9. Conclusion
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 17.1 Core Indicators for Monitoring Universal Access to Safe, Affordable Surgical and Anaesthesia Care When Neededa
18: Patient Safety
1. Key Points
2. Introduction to Patient Safety
3. Adverse Events and Errors
4. Measurement Challenges
5. Systems Thinking
6. Distinction Between Quality and Safety
7. Creating a Culture of Safety
8. Measuring Safety Culture
1. Teamwork and Communication
9. Measuring Teamwork
10. Tools for Improving Safety Culture, Teamwork, and Communication
11. Investigating a Safety Event: Root Cause Analysis
12. Establishing a Comprehensive Safety Program
13. Conclusions
14. References
15. Figures
16. Tables
1. Table 18.1 National Quality Forum Never Events
Part Two: Surgical Practice
Section A: Trauma
19: Trauma and Trauma Care: General Considerations
1. Key Points
2. Burden of Disease
3. Evolving Mechanisms of Injuries with Changing Population Demographics
4. Biomechanics of Injury
5. Immediate, Early, and Late Deaths After Injury
6. Field Triage Decisions and Early Priorities
7. Early Hospital Care and Priorities
8. Lessons Learned from the Battlefield
9. Future Directions
10. References
11. Figures
1. Algorithm 19.1 2011 Guidelines for the field triage of the injured patients. (From Sasser SM, Hunt RC, Faul M, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for field triage of injured patients: recommendations of the National Expert Panel on Field Triage, 2011. MMWR Recomm Rep 2012;61(RR-1):1–20. Available at https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/23038/Share. Accessed December 31, 2019.)
12. Tables
1. Table 19.1 Crude Death Rates by Mechanisms, All Ages (United States 2017)a
2. Table 19.2 Patterns of Injury to the Head, Neck, Trunk, and Extremities Associated with Orthopedic Injuries
3. Table 19.3 Muzzle Velocity, Kinetic Weight of Projectile, and Approximate Maximum Kinetic Energy of Frequently Used Firearms
4. Table 19.4 List of Proposed Indications for Damage Control, Including Range of Values Reported in Various Articles
5. Table 19.5 Criteria for Consideration of Transfer from Level 3 Centers to Level 1 or 2 Centers
6. Table 19.6 Lethality of War Wounds among U.S. Soldiers
7. Table 19.7 Translating Lessons from Military Experience to Civilian Trauma Care
20: Prehospital and New Advances in Resuscitation
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Prehospital Care
1. Personnel
2. Triage
3. Scoop and Run versus Stay and Play
4. Scene Assessment and Management
1. Airway
2. Breathing
3. Circulation
1. Prehospital Control of Hemorrhage
4. Resuscitation
1. Prehospital Transfusion Protocols
2. Permissive Hypotension
5. Controversies
1. Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of Aorta
2. LTOWB Rh-Positive Transfusion in Children and Women of Childbearing Potential
3. Rapid Sequence Intubation versus Non-RSI
6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Tables
1. Table 20.1 Prehospital Assessments and Interventions
2. Table 20.2 Components of Whole Blood versus Reconstituted Component Products
21: Head Injuries
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Classification
1. Clinical Scoring System
2. Neuroimaging Scales
5. Pathophysiology of TBI
1. Primary Brain Injury
2. Secondary Brain Injury
1. Hypotension
2. Hypoxia
3. Intracranial Hypertension and Cerebral Autoregulation
4. Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia
5. Coagulopathy
3. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms in TBI
6. Clinical Assessment
7. Radiologic Assessment
8. Management of Brain Injuries
1. Broad Goals of Management
2. Initial Resuscitation
3. Neuromonitoring
1. ICP Monitoring
2. Pressure Reactivity Index
3. Noninvasive ICP Monitoring
4. Role of Cerebral Oximetry and Microdialysis
4. Medical Management of ICP Elevation
5. Sedation and Analgesia
1. Cerebrospinal Fluid Drainage
2. Osmotic Therapy
3. Seizure Prophylaxis
4. Role of Tranexamic Acid
5. Early Enteral Nutrition
6. Others
6. Therapeutic Intensity Level and Management Parameters to Control ICP
7. Management of Impending Cerebral Herniation
9. Surgical Approach
1. Skull Fracture
2. Epidural Hematoma
3. Subdural Hematoma
4. Parenchymal Contusions
1. Diffuse Axonal Injury
5. Penetrating Injuries to the Brain
6. Role of Decompressive Craniectomy
10. Prognosis
11. References
12. Figures
13. Tables
1. Table 21.1 Glasgow Coma Scale
2. Table 21.2 Marshall Classification for Radiologic Assessment of TBI
3. Table 21.3 Rotterdam Scale for Radiologic Assessment of TBI
4. Table 21.4 Indications for Obtaining CT Scans in Mild TBI
5. Table 21.5 Principles of Damage Control or Hemostatic Resuscitation
6. Table 21.6 Basic Scale for Therapeutic Intensity Level (TIL)
7. Table 21.7 Immediate Management of Impending Cerebral Herniation
8. Table 21.8 Factors that Determine Prognosis in Patients with TBI
22: Injury and Violence Prevention: A Public Health Approach
1. Key Points
2. History of Injury Prevention
3. Epidemiology of Injury: Defining the Problem
1. Unintentional Injury
2. Suicide and Self-Harm
3. Homicide and Assault
4. Mass Shootings
5. Legal Intervention
6. Intimate Partner Violence
7. Child Abuse
8. Firearm Injury
4. Landmark Injury Prevention Initiatives
1. Violence as Public Health Problem
5. The Social Ecologic Model
6. The Surgeon''s Role in Firearm-Related Injury and Violence Prevention
1. Primary Prevention
2. Secondary and Tertiary Prevention
7. References
8. Figures
9. Tables
1. Table 22.1 Medical Summit on Firearm Injury Prevention Consensus Statements
23: Neck Injuries
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Functional Anatomy
4. Initial Management
5. Selective Versus Mandatory Exploration
1. Overall Approach
2. Current Imaging Technology
3. Penetrating Neck Trauma
4. Blunt Neck Trauma
6. Management of Specific Injuries
1. Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury (BCVI)
7. Operative Exploration
1. Penetrating Vascular Injury
2. Trachea and Larynx
3. Esophagus
8. Complications
9. Summary
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 23.1 Signs and Symptoms of Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury
2. Table 23.2 Screening Criteria for Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury
3. Table 23.3 Common Complications after Neck Injury
24: Thoracic Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Initial Imaging
4. Common Injuries
1. Rib Fractures
1. Treatment
2. Pneumothorax
1. Treatment of Pneumothorax
3. Pulmonary Contusion
1. Treatment
4. Hemothorax
5. Retained Hemothorax
6. Aortic Injury
1. Treatment
7. Diaphragmatic Injuries
1. Treatment
8. Cardiac
1. Treatment
9. Blunt Cardiac Injury
10. Tracheobronchial Injury
1. Treatment
11. Thoracic Esophageal Injury
5. Resuscitative Thoracotomy
6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Figures
25: Abdominal Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Blunt Initial Evaluation and Diagnostics
1. Resuscitation
2. Diagnostics
4. Penetrating Injury—Initial Evaluation and Diagnostics
1. General Approach to Penetrating Abdominal Injury
2. Indications and Contraindications to Selective Nonoperative Management
3. Diagnostics
5. The Trauma Laparotomy
6. Damage Control Laparotomy
7. Diaphragm
1. Anatomy
2. Epidemiology
3. Diagnostics
4. Treatment
8. Liver and Biliary Tract
1. Anatomy
2. Epidemiology
3. Diagnostics
4. Treatment
5. Extrahepatic Biliary Tract Injury
9. Spleen
1. Anatomy
2. Epidemiology
3. Diagnostics
4. Treatment
10. Pancreas
1. Anatomy
2. Epidemiology
3. Diagnostics
4. Treatment
11. Stomach
1. Anatomy
2. Diagnostics
3. Treatment
12. Duodenum
1. Anatomy
2. Epidemiology
3. Treatment
13. Colon
1. Epidemiology
2. Diagnostics
3. Treatment
14. Rectum
1. Anatomy
2. Epidemiology
3. Diagnostics
15. References
16. Figures
17. Tables
1. Table 25.1 OIS-AAST Grading Scale for the Liver
2. Table 25.2 OIS-AAST Grading Scale for the Spleen
3. Table 25.3 OIS-AAST Grading Scale for the Pancreas
4. Table 25.4 OIS-AAST Grading Scale for the Colon
26: Genitourinary Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Kidney
1. Evaluation
2. Treatment
3. Complications
3. Ureter
1. Evaluation
2. Treatment
4. Bladder
1. Evaluation
2. Treatment
5. Urethra
1. Evaluation
2. Treatment
6. References
7. Figures
1. Algorithm 26.1 Evaluation of renal trauma. *Grade III with active extravasation is frequently self-limited. **Grade IV–V should have routine repeat CT scan at 48 hours. Grade I–III routine repeat CT is not recommended, but should be performed selectively.
2. Algorithm 26.2 Evaluation of ureteral injury.
8. Tables
1. Table 26.1 AAST Grading of Injuries to Urologic Structures
27: Vascular Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Background
3. Epidemiology and Mechanisms of Vascular Trauma
1. Wartime Vascular Injury
2. Civilian Population Vascular Trauma
3. Mechanism of Vascular Trauma
4. Diagnosis of Vascular Injury
1. Physical Examination
2. Adjuncts to the Physical Examination
3. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Vascular Trauma
4. Contrast Angiography
5. Management of the Patient with Vascular Trauma
1. Trauma Patient Pathophysiology
2. Resuscitation of the Trauma Patient
3. General Intraoperative Considerations and Pearls
6. Management of Specific Injury Patterns—Extremity
1. Upper Extremity
2. Lower Extremity
7. Management of Specific Injury Patterns—Cervical
8. Management of Specific Injury Patterns—Torso
1. Thoracic Cavity
2. Abdomen and Retroperitoneum
9. Endovascular Management of Traumatic Vascular Injuries
10. Conclusion
11. References
12. Figures
13. Tables
1. Table 27.1 Exposures in Vascular Trauma Surgery
2. Table 27.2 Options for Treatment of Vascular Injuries
3. Table 27.3 Topical Hemostatic Agents
4. Table 27.4 Grading of Blunt Cerebrovascular Injury
5. Table 27.5 Grading of Blunt Thoracic Aortic Injury
28: The Principles of Orthopedic Surgery for Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Introduction—Aims and Priorities in Orthopedic Trauma Care
3. Orthopedic Trauma Surgery to Save Life
1. Hemorrhage
2. The Bleeding Pelvis
3. Pelvic Packing
4. Complicated Pelvic Injuries—Open Fractures or Associated Visceral Injury
5. The Orthopedic Management of Major Polytrauma
1. Damage Control Surgery in Orthopedics
2. Special Polytrauma Situations—Head Injury
3. Special Polytrauma Situations—Chest Injury and Femur Fractures
6. Specific Orthopedic Scenarios
1. Major Wounds
7. Orthopedic Trauma Surgery to Save Limbs
1. Open Fracture Principles
8. Vascular Injuries
9. Compartment Syndrome
10. Indications for Amputation/Failure of Reconstruction
11. Orthopedic Trauma Surgery to Limit Disability—Management of Fractures
1. Complex Articular Fractures
12. Special Fracture Groups—Proximal Femur
13. Complications
1. Infection Nonunion and Malunion
2. Orthopedic Injury/Disaster Triage
14. References
15. Figures
1. Algorithm 28.1 The Denver Protocol for management of major pelvic fractures. (Reproduced with permission and copyright © of the British Editorial Society of Bone and Joint Surgery. Mauffrey C, Cuellar DO 3rd, Pieracci F, et al. Strategies for the management of haemorrhage following pelvic fractures and associated trauma-induced coagulopathy. Bone Joint J 2014;96(9):1143–1154.)
16. Tables
1. Table 28.1 Why We Operate on Fractures: Priorities in Trauma Care
2. Table 28.2 Principles of Management of Major Pelvic Ring Injuries
3. Table 28.3 Essential Priorities in Orthopedic Damage Control
4. Table 28.4 Open Fracture Surgical Principles
5. Table 28.5 Open Fracture Classification (after Gustillo & Anderson43)
6. Table 28.6 Bone Healing Timeframes
29: Pediatric Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Introduction and Epidemiology
3. Trauma Systems
4. Initial Assessment, Resuscitation, and Stabilization
1. Vital Signs
2. Fluid Resuscitation
5. Secondary Survey and Adjunct Diagnostic Modalities
6. Management of Specific Injuries
1. Traumatic Brain Injury
2. Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
1. Moderate to Severe TBI
3. Spine Trauma
1. Location of Injury
2. Mechanism of Injury
3. Spinal Cord Injury without Radiographic Abnormality
4. Cerebrovascular Injury
4. Thoracic Trauma
5. Abdominal Trauma
1. Solid Organ Injuries
2. Hollow Viscous Injury
3. Pancreatic and Biliary Injury
4. Anorectal Injuries
6. Pelvic Fracture and Extremity Trauma
1. Venous Thromboembolism
7. Nonaccidental Trauma (Child Abuse)
7. Injury Prevention
1. Smoke Detectors and Carbon Monoxide Detectors
2. Drunken Driving Laws
3. Junior Driver Laws/Safe Driving Laws
4. Child Passenger Restraints
5. All-Terrain Vehicle Laws
8. Gun Violence Prevention
9. References
10. Figures
1. Algorithm 29.1 PECARN rules to identify children at very low risk of clinically important TBI. CT algorithm for children younger than 2 years (A) and for those aged 2 years and older (B) with GCS scores of 14–15 after head trauma. ciTBI, clinically important traumatic brain injury; GCS, Glasgow Coma Scale; LOC, loss of consciousness. (From Kuppermann N, Holmes JF, Dayan PS, et al. Identification of children at very low risk of clinically-important brain injuries after head trauma: A prospective cohort study. Lancet 2009;374[9696]:1160–1170.)
2. Algorithm 29.2A Algorithm generated by the Brain Trauma Foundation Committee for the first edition of the Guidelines for the Medical Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in Infants, Children, and Adolescents for first-tier therapies (A) and second-tier therapies (B). (continued)
3. Algorithm 29.2B AFDO2, arteriovenous difference in oxygen; CBF, cerebral blood flow; CPP, cerebral perfusion pressure; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; CT, computed tomography; EEG, electroencephalogram; GCS, Glasgow Coma Scale; HOB, head of bed; ICP, intracranial pressure; PaCO2, partial pressure of carbon dioxide; PRN, as needed; SjO2, jugular bulb venous oxygen saturation. (From Bell MJ, Kochanek PM. Pediatric traumatic brain injury in 2012: The year with new guidelines and common data elements. Crit Care Clin 2013;29[2]:223–238, with permission.)
4. Algorithm 29.3 New ATOMAC guidelines for management of pediatric solid organ injury. Hb, hemoglobin; ICU, intensive care unit; LR, lactated Ringer''s; NOM, nonoperative management; NPO, non per os; NS, normal saline; PICU, pediatric intensive care unit; PRBC, packed red blood cell; q6h, every 6 hours. (From Notrica DM, Eubanks JW III, Tuggle DW, et al. Nonoperative management of blunt liver and spleen injury in children: Evaluation of the ATOMAC guideline using GRADE. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2015;79[4]:683–693, with permission.)
11. Tables
1. Table 29.1 Pediatric Resuscitation ABC''s
2. Table 29.3 Fluid Management in Children
3. Table 29.2 Pediatric Vital Signs
4. Table 29.4 Modified Glasgow Coma Scale in Children
5. Table 29.5 Summary of Standards, Guidelines, and Options Generated from the 2003 Pediatric TBI Guidelines
6. Table 29.6 Summary of Evidence Generated from the 2012 Pediatric TBI Guidelines
7. Table 29.7 Acute Life-Threatening Thoracic Injuries
30: Geriatric Trauma
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Physiology, Comorbidity, and Preinjury Medications
1. Cardiovascular
2. Pulmonary
3. Renal and Gastrointestinal
4. Medications
4. Mechanism and Injuries
1. Elderly Abuse
2. Traumatic Brain Injury
3. Fractures
5. Triage Criteria for Older Patients
6. Evaluation and Management
1. Trauma Evaluation
2. Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment
3. Assessing Frailty
4. Patient Management
7. Outcomes
1. Mortality Outcomes
2. Functional Outcomes
8. Palliative and End-of-Life Care in the Geriatric Trauma Patient
1. End-of-Life Care
2. Hospice
9. References
10. Tables
1. Table 30.1 Changes in Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Physiology and Commonly Encountered Comorbidities in the Elderly
2. Table 30.2 Common Preinjury Anticoagulants in the Elderly
3. Table 30.3 AGS/BGS Clinical Practice Guideline: Prevention of Falls in Older Persons
4. Table 30.4 Risk Factors and Warning Signs for Elderly Abuse
5. Table 30.5 Strategies for Intervention by Physicians in Suspected Cases of Elder Abuse
31: Trauma in Pregnancy
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Mechanisms of Injury
5. Evaluation of the Pregnant Trauma Patient
1. Airway
2. Pulmonary System
3. Cardiovascular System
4. Hematologic System
6. Fetal Evaluation and Monitoring
7. Diagnostic Imaging
1. Pelvic Fractures
2. Abruptio Placentae
3. Uterine Rupture
4. Amniotic Fluid Embolism
5. Eclampsia
6. Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
8. Emergency Caesarian Section
9. Social Considerations
10. Team Approach to Trauma in the Pregnant Patient
11. Summary
12. References
13. Tables
1. Table 31.1 Physiologic Changes in Pregnancy
2. Table 31.2 Obstetrical Examination Points
3. Table 31.3 Estimated Fetal Radiation Doses from Common Imaging Studies
4. Table 31.4 Evaluation of Abruption
5. Table 31.5 Eclampsia
6. Table 31.6 Indications for Emergency Caesarian
32: Postinjury Management
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Acute Traumatic Coagulopathy
4. Detection of Traumatic Coagulopathy
5. Damage Control Resuscitation
6. Endpoints of Resuscitation
7. Abdominal Compartment Syndrome
8. Traumatic Brain Injury
1. Secondary Brain Injury
2. Imaging in TBI
3. Coagulopathy in TBI
4. Antiplatelet and Anticoagulation Therapy in TBI
5. Seizure Prophylaxis after TBI
6. Penetrating Brain Injury
9. Nutritional and Metabolic Support
10. Organ Donation
1. Rib Fractures
2. Blunt Cardiac Injury
11. References
12. Tables
1. Table 32.1 Components of Damage Control Resuscitation
2. Table 32.2 Grades of Intra-Abdominal Hypertension
3. Table 32.3 Brain Injury Guideline
33: Environmental Injuries
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Envenomation
1. Snakebite
1. Special Consideration of Elapid Envenomation
2. Venomous Lizards
3. Insect Bites and Stings
4. Spiders
5. Brown Recluse
6. Black Widow Spiders
4. Hymenoptera
1. Killer Bees
2. Fire Ants
3. Scorpions
4. Centipedes and Millipedes
5. Asp Caterpillars
6. Hypothermia
1. Hypothermia in Trauma Patients
2. Treatment
7. Cold Injury and Frostbite
8. Treatment
5. References
6. Figures
7. Tables
1. Table 33.1Crotalus Species
2. Table 33.2Agkistrodon Species
3. Table 33.3Sistrurus Species
4. Table 33.4 Composition of Venom
5. Table 33.5 Components of Antivenom—CroFab® Antibodies
6. Table 33.6 Clinical Definitions of Hypothermia and Examples of Settings in Which They Occur
7. Table 33.7 Zones of Severity for Hypothermia
8. Table 33.8 Classification of Frostbite
9. Table 33.9 Amputation Outcomes of Patients Treated with Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA) Compared with All Other Patients by Frostbite
Section B: Transplantation
34: Clinical Transplant Immunology
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Scientific Basis for Modern Clinical Immunosuppression
1. The Immune Response to a Solid Organ Transplant
4. Rejection in Solid Organ Transplantation
1. Hyperacute Rejection
2. Acute Rejection
3. Chronic Rejection
4. Antibody-Mediated Rejection
5. Immunologic Pharmacotherapy in Solid Organ Transplantation
1. Induction
6. Cell Surface Receptor Blockade
1. B7/CD28 CTLA4 Blockade
2. IL-2 Receptor Blockade
7. Leukocyte Depletion
8. Maintenance Immunosuppression
1. Calcineurin Inhibitors
2. Steroids
3. mTOR Inhibitors
4. Antimetabolite Drugs
5. Infections after Transplant
1. Donor-Derived Infections
2. Recipient-Derived Infections
6. Cancer
7. References
8. Figures
35: Organ Retrieval and Preservation
1. Key Points
2. Organ Donation
1. Living Donation
2. Deceased Donation
1. Declaration of Death
2. Consent for Donation
3. Organ Selection
1. Donor History of Cancer
2. Donor History of Infectious Disease
3. Organ-Specific Issues
1. Kidney
2. Liver
3. Pancreas
4. Heart
5. Lungs
4. The Organ Retrieval Operation
1. Heart and Lung Retrieval
2. Liver Retrieval
3. Kidney Retrieval
4. Pancreas Retrieval
5. New Methods in Organ Optimization and Preservation
6. References
7. Figures
8. Tables
1. Table 35.1 Five-Year Graft Survival of Kidney and Liver Transplant by Donor Type
2. Table 35.2 Efforts to Increase Living Donation in the Last Decade
3. Table 35.3 Criteria for Brain Death
4. Table 35.4 Steps for Flushing and Removal of Heart Then Lungs
5. Table 35.5 Steps for Flushing and Removal of Abdominal Organs
6. Table 35.6 Key Concepts in Organ Preservation
36: Kidney Transplantation
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Immunology of Renal Transplantation
4. The Donor Pool: Living Donors, Deceased Donors, and Donation After Cardiac Death
1. Living Donors
2. Deceased Donors
3. Further Strategies for Increasing the Number of Donor Kidneys
5. The Transplant Procedure
1. Recipient Preoperative Assessment
2. Living-Donor Nephrectomy: Open and Laparoscopic
3. Recipient Operative Procedure
6. Complications
1. Early Graft Dysfunction
2. Technical Complications
7. Immunosuppression, Rejection, and Immunosuppressive Complications
1. Immunosuppression
2. Rejection
3. Immunosuppressive Complications
8. Current Results and Future Trends
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 36.1 Etiology of Renal Disease as Indications for Renal Transplantation, Ranked in Order of Prevalence
37: Hepatic Transplantation
1. Key Points
2. Indications for Liver Transplantation
1. Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
2. Alcohol-Related Liver Disease
3. Transplant for Malignancy
3. End-Stage Liver Disease and Evaluation for Liver Transplantation
1. Acute Liver Injury and Fulminant Hepatic Failure
2. Medical and Surgical Evaluation for Liver Transplantation
3. Waitlist Management and Organ Allocation
4. Surgical Procedure: Liver Transplantation
1. Anesthetic Management
2. Intraoperative Management of Coagulopathy
3. Surgical Technique
4. Recipient Hepatectomy
5. Anhepatic Phase and Implantation of the Donor Liver
6. Post-revascularization Phase
7. Technique for Partial Liver Transplantation
8. Living Donor Liver Transplantation
5. Posttransplant Care and Complications
1. Recipient Factors
2. Donor Factors
3. Technical Factors
4. Vascular Complications
5. Biliary Complications
6. Immunologic Complications
7. Antibody-Mediated Rejection
8. Cellular Rejection
9. Chronic Rejection
10. Immunosuppression Induction and Maintenance
11. Treatment of Acute Rejection
6. References
7. Figures
8. Tables
1. Table 37.1 UNOS Modified TNM Staging for Hepatocellular Carcinoma
2. Table 37.2 Indications for Liver Transplantation by Diagnosis
3. Table 37.3 Continuum of Post-Liver Transplant Complications
38: Cardiac Transplantation
1. Key Points
2. Historical Perspective
3. Indications for Transplantation
4. Pretransplant Management
5. Pretransplant Assessment
6. Organ Availability and Allocation
7. Immunosuppression
8. Donor Selection and Management
1. Donor Selection
2. Heart Procurement
3. Key Concept
9. Recipient Management and Procedure
10. Current Outcomes
1. Survival
2. Complications
11. Future Directions
12. Conclusion
13. References
14. Figures
15. Tables
1. Table 38.1 ISHLT Standardized Cardiac Biopsy Grading: Acute Cellular Rejection
2. Table 38.2 The 2013 ISHLT Working Formulation for Pathologic Diagnosis of Cardiac Antibody-Mediated Rejection
39: Lung Transplantation
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
1. Early Years of Lung Transplantation
2. Current Status of Lung Transplants in the United States
3. The Final Rule
1. Lung Allocation
4. Indications
1. Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
2. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
3. Cystic Fibrosis
4. Pulmonary Hypertension
5. Contraindications to Lung Transplantation
5. Operative Procedures
1. Donor Recovery Operation
2. Recipient Preparation
3. Single Lung Transplantation
4. Bilateral Lung Transplantation
6. Operative Considerations
1. Allograft Ischemic Time
2. Unilateral versus Bilateral Lung Transplant
3. Intraoperative Cardiopulmonary Support
4. Special Patient Populations
5. Surgical Complications
1. Primary Graft Dysfunction
2. Airway Complications
7. Donor Considerations
1. Ex Vivo Lung Perfusion
2. EVLP Clinical Trials
3. Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Organs (HCV)
8. Conclusions
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 39.1 Selected Components of the Lung Allocation Score
2. Table 39.2 Pulmonary Disease Diagnosis Groups
3. Table 39.3 ISHLT General Recommendations for Consideration for Lung Transplantation8
4. Table 39.4 Disease-Specific Considerations for Listing for Lung Transplantation8
5. Table 39.5 Contraindications to Lung Transplant
6. Table 39.6 Sequential Steps in Donor Lung Recovery
7. Table 39.7 Grading of Primary Graft Dysfunction Severity
40: Pancreas and Islet Transplantation
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Pathophysiology
4. Secondary Complications of Diabetes
5. Pancreas Transplantation
1. Overview
2. Patient Selection
3. Simultaneous Kidney–Pancreas Transplantation
4. Pancreas after Kidney Transplantation
5. Simultaneous Living Donor Kidney–Deceased Donor Pancreas Transplantation
6. Living Donor Kidney–Pancreas Transplantation
7. Pancreas-Alone Transplantation
8. Evaluation and Screening
9. The Waiting List and Recipients
10. Deceased Donor Pancreas Allocation
11. Donor Evaluation
12. Recovery Technique
13. Back-Table Preparation of the Pancreas
14. Recipient Operation
15. Immunosuppression
16. Complications
17. Diagnosis and Treatment of Rejection
18. Recurrent Autoimmunity
19. Posttransplant Viral Infections
20. Results of Kidney–Pancreas Transplantation
21. Results of Solitary Pancreas Transplantation
22. Effect of Pancreas Transplantation on Secondary Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
6. Islet Transplantation
1. Overview
2. History
3. Islet Isolation
4. Patient Selection
5. Donor Selection/Recovery/Preservation
6. Transplant Techniques
7. Perioperative Care
8. Immunosuppression
9. Metabolic Control
10. Complications
11. Results
12. Graft Failure
1. Alternative Methods
7. The Future of Pancreas and Islet Transplantation
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 40.1 Summary of Pancreas DRI
2. Table 40.2 Unadjusted 1-Year Pancreas Allograft Survival by DRI and Transplant Type
3. Table 40.3 Revised Banff Classification for Diagnosis and Grading Pancreas Allograft Rejection102
Section C: Head and Neck
41: Head and Neck
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Patient Evaluation
1. History and Physical Examination
2. Workup
3. Airway Concerns
4. Infectious and Inflammatory Disease of the Head and Neck
1. Neck Abscesses
2. Complications of Rhinosinusitis
3. Sialadenitis
5. Neck Masses: Cystic Neck Infection or Malignancy?
6. Head and Neck Neoplasms
1. Salivary Neoplasms
2. Sinonasal Neoplasms
7. Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma
1. Oral Cavity
2. Nasopharynx
3. Oropharynx
4. Hypopharynx
5. Larynx
8. Neck Dissection
9. Complications of Head and Neck Surgery
10. References
11. Figures
1. Algorithm 41.1 Workup of a neck mass in an adult patient.
12. Tables
1. Table 41.1 Anatomic Subsites of the Head and Neck
2. Table 41.2 Complications of Sinusitis
3. Table 41.3 Differential Diagnosis of a Neck Mass
4. Table 41.4 Salivary Tumors
5. Table 41.5 Staging of Major Salivary Gland Tumors
6. Table 41.6 Lip and Oral Cavity Cancer Staging
7. Table 41.7A HPV-Positive (p16+) Oropharyngeal Cancer Staging
8. Table 41.7B HPV-Negative (p16−) Oropharyngeal Cancer Staging
9. Table 41.8 Larynx Staging
10. Table 41.9A Clinical Nodal Staging for Salivary, Oral Cavity, HPV-Negative Oropharynx, Hypopharynx, and Larynx Cancers
11. Table 41.9B Clinical and Pathologic Nodal Staging for HPV-Positive Oropharynx Cancer
12. Table 41.10 Complications of Head and Neck Surgeries
Section D: Esophagus
42: Esophageal Anatomy and Physiology and Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
1. Key Points
2. Esophageal Anatomy and Function
1. Cervical Esophagus
2. Thoracic Esophagus
3. Abdominal Esophagus
4. Structure of the Esophageal Wall and Mucosa
5. Blood Supply, Lymphatics, and Innervation
3. Physiology
1. The Swallowing Mechanism
2. The Gastroesophageal Barrier: Lower Esophageal Sphincter
4. Evaluation of Esophageal Function
1. Upper Endoscopy
2. Radiologic Evaluation
3. Esophageal Manometry
1. Lower Esophageal Sphincter
2. Esophageal Body Motility
4. Ambulatory pH Monitoring
5. Multichannel Impedance Testing
6. Impedance Planimetry
5. Conclusions
6. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
1. Definition and Epidemiology
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Physiology of the Antireflux Barrier
4. Transient Relaxation of the Lower Esophageal Sphincter
5. Structural Integrity of the Lower Esophageal Sphincter
6. Anatomic Alterations
1. Hiatal Hernia
2. Gastric Distension
7. Implications
8. Complications of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
1. Mucosal Complications
2. Respiratory Complications
1. Pathophysiology of Reflux-Induced Respiratory Symptoms
3. Laryngopharyngeal Reflux
1. Treatment of Extraesophageal Complications
4. Metaplastic (Barrett) and Neoplastic (Adenocarcinoma) Complications
1. Pathophysiology of Barrett Metaplasia
2. Treatment
3. Dysplasia in Barrett Esophagus
9. Treatment of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
1. Medical Treatment
2. Antireflux Surgery
1. Indications
2. Preoperative Evaluation
1. Endoscopic Assessment.
2. Twenty-four–Hour Ambulatory pH Monitoring.
3. Ambulatory Combined Impedance-pH Monitoring.
4. Radiographic Evaluation.
5. Assessment of Esophageal Function.
6. Assessment of Gastric Function.
7. Impedance Planimetry.
3. Partial versus Complete Fundoplication
4. Laparoscopic Nissen Fundoplication
1. Port Placement.
2. Crural Dissection.
3. Esophageal Mobilization and Crural Closure.
4. Creation of the Fundoplication.
5. Transthoracic Nissen Fundoplication
6. Collis Gastroplasty
7. Outcomes following Antireflux Surgery
1. Symptomatic and Objective Outcomes after Antireflux Surgery.
2. Complications of Antireflux Surgery.
3. Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass.
4. Magnetic Sphincter Augmentation.
8. Endoscopic Management of GERD
1. Radiofrequency Ablation.
2. Transoral Incisionless Fundoplication (TIF 2.0).
7. References
8. Figures
1. Algorithm 42.1 24-Hour esophageal pH monitoring.
9. Tables
1. Table 42.1 Modified Los Angeles Classification of Esophagitis
2. Table 42.2 Normal and Abnormal Lower Esophageal Sphincter Measurements on HRM
3. Table 42.3 Goals of the Diagnostic Approach to Patients Suspected of Having GERD and Being Considered for Antireflux Surgery
4. Table 42.4 Predictors of Outcome after Laparoscopic Fundoplication: Stepwise Logistic Regression Results of 199 Patients
5. Table 42.5 University of Southern California Protocol for Video Esophagram Studies
6. Table 42.6 Elements of Laparoscopic Fundoplication
7. Table 42.7 Indications for Performing an Antireflux Procedure by a Transthoracic Approach
43: Esophageal Tumors and Injury
1. Key Points
2. Malignant Esophageal Neoplasms
1. Epidemiology and Histology
2. Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Evaluation
3. Staging
4. Treatment
1. Superficial Cancers
2. Locoregional or Locally Advanced Disease
3. Metastatic or Unresectable Disease
5. Prognosis
3. Esophagectomy
1. Techniques of Esophagectomy
1. Three-Incision Esophagectomy (McKeown)
2. Transhiatal Esophagectomy
3. Ivor Lewis Esophagectomy
4. Left Thoracoabdominal Esophagectomy
5. Minimally Invasive Esophagectomy
2. Intraoperative Complications
3. Immediate and Long-term Outcomes Following Esophagectomy
4. Morbidity Following Esophagectomy
1. Anastomotic and Conduit Complications
2. Respiratory Complications
4. Benign Esophageal Neoplasms
1. Leiomyoma
2. Fibrovascular Polyp
3. Schwannoma
4. Lymphangioma
5. Esophageal Injury
1. Esophageal Perforation
1. Epidemiology
2. Clinical Features
3. Diagnosis
4. Management
5. Nonoperative Treatment
6. Esophageal Stents
1. Patient Selection
2. Stent Placement
3. Poststent Management
4. Outcomes
7. Endoscopic Clipping
8. Vacuum-Assisted Closure Therapy
9. Surgical Repair
10. Surgical Resection
2. Caustic Injury
1. Epidemiology
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Management
4. Surgical Resection
5. Complications
3. Esophageal Fistulas
4. Esophageal Foreign Body
6. References
7. Figures
1. Algorithm 43.1 Evaluation and management of esophageal leiomyoma.
2. Algorithm 43.2 Evaluation and management of esophageal perforation.
3. Algorithm 43.3 Evaluation and management of acute caustic ingestion.
8. Tables
1. Table 43.1 T, N, and M Categories for Esophagus and Esophagogastric Junction Cancer in the 8th Edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Cancer Staging Manual
2. Table 43.2 Histologic Grade (G) and Squamous Cell Carcinoma Location (L) Categories for Esophagus and Esophagogastric Junction Cancer in the 8th Edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Cancer Staging Manual
3. Table 43.3 AJCC 8th Edition Clinical Stage Groupings
4. Table 43.4 AJCC 8th Edition Pathologic Stage Groupings
5. Table 43.5 AJCC 8th Edition Post-Neoadjuvant Pathologic Stage Groupings for Both Adenocarcinoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma
6. Table 43.6 General Operating Room Set-Up for Different Esophagectomy Approaches
7. Table 43.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Esophageal Approaches
8. Table 43.8 Perioperative Morbidity and Mortality After Esophagogastrectomy
9. Table 43.9 Classification of Benign Esophageal Neoplasms by Cell Type
10. Table 43.10 Causes of Esophageal Perforation
11. Table 43.11 Perforation Severity Scoring (PSS) Criteria
12. Table 43.12 Endoscopic Grading of Acute Caustic Injury to the Esophagus
Section E: Stomach and Duodenum
44: Gastric Anatomy and Physiology
1. Key Points
2. Gross Anatomy
3. Microscopic Anatomy
4. Gastric Peptides
1. Gastrin
2. Somatostatin
5. Gastric Acid Secretion
1. Cellular Events
2. Regulation of Acid Secretion
6. Pepsin
7. Intrinsic Factor
8. Gastric Blood Flow
9. Gastric Motility
1. Gastric Smooth Muscle
2. Coordination of Contraction
10. References
11. Figures
45: Gastroduodenal Ulceration
1. Key Points
2. Epidemiology
3. Pathophysiology
1. Helicobacter pylori
2. Acid-Secretory Status
3. Mucosal Defense Against Peptic Injury
4. Environmental Factors
4. Diagnosis
5. Drug Treatment of Ulcer Disease
6. Histamine-Receptor Antagonists
7. Proton Pump Blockers
8. Operative Treatment of Ulcer Disease
1. Surgical Goals
2. Operative Procedures
3. Hemorrhage
4. Perforation
5. Obstruction
9. Gastric Ulcer
1. Endoscopic Diagnosis
2. Therapy
10. Stress Gastritis
1. Diagnosis
2. Treatment and Prophylaxis
11. References
12. Figures
1. Algorithm 45.1 Treatment of bleeding duodenal ulceration.
13. Tables
1. Table 45.1Helicobacter pylori Virulence Factors
2. Table 45.2 Pathogenesis of Peptic Ulcer
3. Table 45.3 Situations in Which Operative Intervention Is Appropriate
46: Management of Obesity
1. Key Points
2. Diagnosis and Epidemiology
1. Obesity and Metabolic Disease
2. Diagnosis
3. Epidemiology, Disease Burden
3. Medical Management
1. Treatment Strategies
1. Lifestyle Interventions
2. Pharmacotherapy
4. Surgical Management
1. Bariatric Surgery—Beginnings
2. Gastric Bypass
3. Malabsorption Revisited
4. Pure Restriction
5. Epidemiology of Modern Bariatric Surgery
1. Eligibility
2. Efficacy
3. Perioperative Mortality and Morbidity
4. Late Morbidity
5. Operative Considerations
6. Perioperative and Postoperative Management
7. Physiologic Mechanisms Underlying Bariatric Surgery Efficacy
5. References
6. Figures
1. Algorithm 46.1 Algorithm for management of abdominal pain months or years after Roux-en-Y reconstruction.
7. Tables
1. Table 46.1 Bariatric Surgery Long-Term Weight Loss Responses. Short-Term Comparative Outcomes at 2 Years
2. Table 46.2 Bariatric Surgery Long-Term Comorbidity Responses. Mid- and Long-Term Comparative Outcomes at 3 to 10 Years
3. Table 46.3 Bariatric Surgery Perioperative Mortality and Morbidity. Early and Late Comparative Complications77,78,79,80,81,82,83
4. Table 46.4 Select Micronutrient Deficiencies Associated with Bariatric Surgery
47: Gastric Neoplasms
1. Key Points
2. Adenocarcinoma
1. Epidemiology
2. Premalignant Lesions
3. Gastritis
4. Helicobacter Pylori
5. Previous Gastric Surgery
6. Hereditary Syndromes
7. Clinical Features
8. Diagnosis and Staging
9. Staging Laparoscopy
10. Pathology
11. Curative-Intent Treatment
12. Endoscopic Resection
13. Surgical Resection
14. Neoadjuvant and Adjuvant Therapies
15. Palliative Surgical Treatment
3. Other Gastric Neoplasms
1. Gastric Lymphoma
1. Clinical Features
2. Diagnosis
3. Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
4. Non-MALT Lymphomas
2. Gastric Carcinoids
3. Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors of the Stomach
4. References
5. Figures
1. Algorithm 47.1 Diagnosis and management of gastric cancer.
6. Tables
1. Table 47.1 Common Symptoms and Physical Findings in Gastric Cancer
2. Table 47.2 8th Edition AJCC Staging System for Carcinoma of the Stomach
3. Table 47.3 Lymphadenectomy in the Original System of the Japanese Research Society for Gastric Cancer
4. Table 47.4 Current Nomenclature Used to Describe the Extent of Lymphadenectomy Performed in Conjunction with Gastrectomy
5. Table 47.5 Risk of Aggressive Behavior in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
Section F: Small Intestine
48: Anatomy and Physiology of the Small Intestine
1. Key Points
2. Gross Anatomy and Embryology
3. Duodenum
4. Vascular and Lymphatic Supply
5. Jejunum and Ileum
6. Vascular and Lymphatic Supply
7. Microscopic Anatomy
1. General Considerations
2. Mucosa
3. Submucosa
4. Physiology
5. Motility
8. Immunology
1. Principles of Gut Immunology
2. Nonaggregated and Aggregated Lymphoid Tissue
3. Immunoglobulin Secretion
4. Small Intestine Microbiota
9. Digestion and Absorption
1. Absorption of Water
2. Absorption of Electrolytes
3. Sodium
4. Chloride
5. Bicarbonate
6. Potassium
7. Carbohydrates
8. Nondigestible Carbohydrates (Dietary Fiber)
9. Protein
10. Fat
11. Bile Salts
12. Mineral
13. Vitamin Absorption
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 48.1 Small Intestine Development and Associated Pathology
2. Table 48.2 Intestinal Hormones
3. Table 48.3 Average Daily Intestinal Secretions
4. Table 48.4 Small Intestine Absorption of Electrolytes
5. Table 48.5 Small Intestine Absorption of Minerals
6. Table 48.6A and 6B Small Intestine Absorption of (A) Water-Soluble and (B) Fat-Soluble Vitamins
49: Ileus and Bowel Obstruction
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Mechanical Obstruction of the Intestine
1. Terminology and Classification
2. Pathophysiology of Intestinal Obstruction
1. Complications and Systemic Effects of Bowel Obstruction
1. Closed-Loop Obstructions
2. Open-Loop Obstructions
2. Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis of Small Bowel Obstruction
1. Acute Obstructions: Symptoms and Signs
2. Strangulation: Symptoms and Signs
3. Strangulation: Laboratory Testing
4. Obstruction and Strangulation: Differential Diagnosis
5. Obstruction and Strangulation: Radiographs and other Imaging Modalities
6. Plain Radiographs
7. Contrast-Enhanced Radiography
8. Computerized Tomography
9. Ultrasound and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
10. Caveats to the Use of Imaging When Strangulation or Closed-Loop Obstruction Are Suspected
3. General Considerations in Management of the Patient with Bowel Obstruction
1. The Diagnosis Is Suspected
2. Resuscitation
3. Nasogastric Decompression
4. Antibiotics
5. Adjuncts to Resuscitation and Decompression
6. Indications and Timing of Operation
3. Specific Types of Bowel Obstruction
1. Chronic Adhesions
2. Early Postoperative Obstruction and Adhesions
1. Early Obstruction after Open Operations
2. Early Obstruction After Laparoscopic Procedures
3. Bowel Obstruction after a Bariatric Procedure
4. Hernia
1. Indications and Timing of Surgery
2. Use of Mesh in Repair in Obstruction-Associated Hernia
1. Inguinal Hernia
2. Ventral Hernia
3. Preoperative Reduction of Hernia to Relieve Obstruction (Taxis)
5. Gallstone Ileus
6. Intussusception
7. Crohn Disease
8. Malignant Obstruction
9. Volvulus
10. Radiation Enteritis
1. Open and Laparoscopic Operation in the Management of Small Bowel Obstruction
1. General Principles of Open Laparotomy and Lysis of Adhesions
2. General Principles of Laparoscopically Assisted Lysis of Adhesions
4. Ileus and Pseudoobstruction
1. Ileus
1. Etiologic Factors
2. Neurohumoral Factors
1. Inflammation
3. Diagnosis
4. Management
2. Colonic Pseudoobstruction (Ogilvie Syndrome)
1. Etiologic Factors
2. Diagnosis
3. Management
5. Key References
6. References
7. Figures
1. Algorithm 49.1 Approach to recognition and management of early postlaparotomy obstruction of the small intestine.
2. Algorithm 49.2 Algorithm for management of malignant obstruction.
8. Tables
1. Table 49.1 Classification of Adult Mechanical Intestinal Obstructions
2. Table 49.2 Symptoms and Signs of Bowel Obstruction
3. Table 49.3 Diagnosis and Decisions in Bowel Obstruction in Three Hypothetical Patients
4. Table 49.4 Management of Malignant Obstructions: Risk Factors for Unfavorable Outcome
5. Table 49.5 Etiologies of Prolonged Ileus after Abdominal Operations
6. Table 49.6 Management Treatment for Postoperative Ileus
7. Table 49.7 Management Measures to Prevent Prolongation of Ileus
8. Table 49.8 Management Treatment for Pseudoobstruction
50: Crohn Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Etiology
5. Differential Diagnosis
6. Diagnostic Evaluation
7. Clinical Evaluation
1. Upper Gastrointestinal
1. Small Bowel
2. Colonic
3. Anorectal
4. Extraintestinal Disease
8. Diagnostic Methods
1. Radiology
2. Endoscopy
3. Pathology
4. Laboratory Analysis
9. Treatment
1. Medical Management
10. Operative Management
1. Indications for Surgery
1. General Principles
11. Specific Considerations
1. Small-Bowel Disease (Algorithm 50.1)
1. Colorectal Conditions
2. Colorectal Malignancy
3. Influence of Immunosuppressive Medications on Surgical Outcomes
4. Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis
5. Treatment of Anorectal Conditions (Algorithm 50.3)
6. Anal Skin Tags and Hemorrhoids (Algorithm 50.4)
1. Anorectal Abscess/Fistula (Algorithm 50.5)
2. Rectovaginal/Anovaginal Fistula
3. Anal Fissure (Algorithm 50.6)
4. Anorectal Malignancy
12. Summary
13. References
14. Figures
1. Algorithm 50.1 Management of small-bowel disease in Crohn disease.
2. Algorithm 50.2 Management of colitis in Crohn disease.
3. Algorithm 50.3 Crohn disease with anal complaints.
4. Algorithm 50.4 Management of anal skin tags and hemorrhoids in Crohn disease.
5. Algorithm 50.5 Management of anal fistula in Crohn disease.
6. Algorithm 50.6 Management of anal fissure in Crohn disease.
15. Tables
1. Table 50.1 Differential Diagnosis of Crohn Disease
2. Table 50.2 Classification of Extraintestinal Manifestations of Crohn Disease
3. Table 50.3 Clinical Endoscopic Scoring Systems for Crohn Disease
4. Table 50.4 Available Medications for Crohn Disease
5. Table 50.5 Medications for the Induction of Remission of Crohn Disease
6. Table 50.6 Perioperative Complications of Bowel Resection in Crohn Patientsa
51: Small Intestinal Neoplasms
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Pathogenesis
5. Predisposition to Small Bowel Cancer
1. Familial Adenomatous Polyposis
2. Crohn Disease
3. Celiac Disease
4. Peutz–Jeghers Syndrome
5. Lynch Syndrome
6. Other Familial Syndromes
7. Dietary and Lifestyle Predisposition
6. Clinical Presentation
7. Diagnosis
8. Capsule Endoscopy
9. Small Bowel Enteroscopy
1. Double-Balloon Enteroscopy
2. Single-Balloon Enteroscopy
3. Spiral Enteroscopy
4. Exploratory Laparoscopy for Small Bowel Neoplasms
5. Imaging
10. Management
1. Benign
2. Malignant
1. Neuroendocrine Tumors
2. Diagnosis of NETs
3. Small Bowel Adenocarcinoma
4. Adjuvant and Neoadjuvant Therapy
5. Lymphoma
6. Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor
11. Metastatic Tumors to the Small Bowel
12. References
13. Figures
1. Algorithm 51.1 Management algorithm for patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) of the gastrointestinal tract. mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; PPI, proton pump inhibitor; RFA, radiofrequency ablation; TAE, transarterial embolization. (Walter T, Brixi-Benmansour H, Lombard-Bohas C, et al. New treatment strategies in advanced neuroendocrine tumours. Dig Liver Dis 2012;44(2):95–105.)
2. Algorithm 51.2 Algorithm showing the management of patients with small bowel adenocarcinomas. The treatment strategy depends on disease stage and involves en bloc resection for locoregional disease and systemic chemotherapy for metastatic disease. All current recommendations are based on case series, retrospective reviews, or nonrandomized prospective trials because of an absence of any randomized data. 5-FU, 5-fluorouracil; CAPOX, capecitabine and oxaliplatin; FOLFIRI, 5-FU, leucovorin and irinotecan; FOLFOX, 5-FU, leucovorin and oxaliplatin; KRAS-WT, KRAS wild-type; PS, performance status; XRT, radiation therapy. (Elias D, Lefevre JH, Duvillard P, et al. Hepatic metastases from neuroendocrine tumors with a “thin slice” pathological examination: they are many more than you think. Ann Surg 2010;251(2):307–310.)
3. Algorithm 51.3 Treatment algorithms for patients with (A) advanced/metastatic GIST and (B) resectable GIST. GIST indicates gastrointestinal stromal tumor. (Mullady DK, Tan BR. A multidisciplinary approach to the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumor. J Clin Gastroenterol 2013;47(7):578–585.)
14. Tables
1. Table 51.1 Small Intestinal Neoplasms
2. Table 51.2 Protective Features of Small Intestine1
3. Table 51.3 Mutational Complexity of Small Bowel Adenocarcinoma
4. Table 51.4 Genetic Syndromes Predisposing for Small Bowel Adenocarcinoma
5. Table 51.5 Modifiable Risk Factors for Small Bowel Adenocarcinoma
6. Table 51.6 Complications Resulting from Small Bowel Tumors
7. Table 51.7 Prognostic Factors Influencing Overall Survival (OS) in NETs
8. Table 51.8 Pathologic Classification of Neuroendocrine Tumors40
9. Table 51.9 AJCC TNM Classification for Neuroendocrine Tumors of Lower Jejunum and Ileum
10. Table 51.10 5-Year Survival Rates by Neuroendocrine Tumor Location (1973–1997)a
11. Table 51.11 Disease-Specific Survival for Small Bowel Adenocarcinoma According to Disease Stage, Total Number of Lymph Nodes Assessed, and Total Number of Positive Lymph Nodes65
12. Table 51.12 Modified NIH–Fletcher GIST Risk Assessment Criteria
Section G: Pancreas
52: Pancreas Anatomy and Physiology
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Embryology of the Pancreas
4. Variant Embryologic Anatomy
1. Pancreas Divisum
2. Annular Pancreas
3. Ectopic or Heterotopic Pancreas
5. Cellular Organization of the Pancreas
1. Exocrine Pancreas
2. Endocrine Pancreas
6. Physiology of the Pancreas
1. Exocrine Physiology
1. Enzymatic Secretions
2. Bicarbonate Secretion
2. Exocrine Insufficiency
1. Testing for Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency
1. Pancreatic Effluent Testing
2. Serum Testing
3. Urine Testing
4. Fecal Testing
5. Breath Testing
3. Endocrine Physiology
1. Endocrine Insufficiency
2. Insulin
3. Glucagon
4. Somatostatin
5. Ghrelin and Pancreatic Polypeptide
7. Pancreatic Anatomy
1. Lymphatics
2. Innervation
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 52.1 Types of Heterotopic Pancreatic Tissue as Defined by the Type of Tissue Identified on Histologic Examination
2. Table 52.2 Pancreatic Endocrine Cell Types
3. Table 52.3 Most Common Enzymes Secreted by the Exocrine Pancreas
4. Table 52.4 Three Phases of Pancreatic Exocrine Secretion
5. Table 52.5 Differential Diagnosis of Intestinal and Pancreatic Steatorrhea
6. Table 52.6 Japanese Lymph Node Stations
53: Acute Pancreatitis
1. Key Points
2. Epidemiology
3. Aetiology
4. Biliary Pancreatitis
5. Alc oholic Pancreatitis
6. Clinical Presentation
7. Physiology
8. Severity Classification and Prediction
1. Revised Atlanta Classification
2. Laboratory Test and Scores
3. Clinical-Based Classifications: Atlanta Classification and Determinant-Based Classification
9. Treatment Early Phase
10. Fluid Resuscitation
11. Pain Management
12. Antibiotics and Probiotics as Prophylaxis
13. Nutrition
1. Enteral Nutrition
14. Porto-Spleno-Mesenteric Thrombosis in AP
15. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiography in Acute Biliary Pancreatitis
16. Local Complications of AP
17. Management of Local Complications
1. Peripancreatic Fluid Collections
18. Management of Pancreatic Necrosis and its Complications
19. Step-Up Approach
20. Minimally Invasive Necrosectomy
21. Endoscopic Necrosectomy
22. References
23. Figures
24. Tables
1. Table 53.1 Etiology of Acute Pancreatitis
2. Table 53.2 Definition of Severity of Acute Pancreatitis According to Current Classification Systems
54: Chronic Pancreatitis
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Etiology
5. Pathophysiology
6. Clinical Presentation
7. Radiographic Evaluation
8. Considerations in Management
9. Endoscopic Management
10. Surgical Management
1. Lateral Pancreaticojejunostomy
2. Localized Pancreatic Head Resection with Lateral Pancreaticojejunostomy
3. Pancreatic Head Resection
4. Distal Pancreatectomy
5. Total Pancreatectomy
6. Minimally Invasive Surgery for Chronic Pancreatitis
11. Conclusions
12. References
13. Figures
1. Algorithm 54.1 Algorithm for operative decision-making in chronic pancreatitis. LPJ, lateral pancreaticojejunostomy; LR-LPJ, local pancreatic head resection with lateral pancreaticojejunostomy; PD, pancreatoduodenectomy; DPPHR, duodenum preserving pancreatic head resection; DP, distal pancreatectomy; TPIAT, total pancreatectomy with islet autotransplantation.
14. Tables
1. Table 54.1 Complications of Chronic Pancreatitis
2. Table 54.2 EUS Criteria for Chronic Pancreatitis
55: Neoplasms of Exocrine Pancreas
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology and Risk Factors
4. Molecular Genetics
5. Pathology
1. Solid Epithelial Tumors of the Pancreas
1. Ductal Adenocarcinomas
2. Adenosquamous Carcinomas
3. Acinar Cell Carcinomas
4. Solid-Pseudopapillary Neoplasms
5. Pancreatoblastoma
2. Cystic Epithelial Tumors of the Pancreas
1. Serous Cystic Neoplasms
2. Mucinous Cystic Neoplasms
3. Intraductal Papillary-Mucinous Neoplasms
6. Clinicopathologic Staging
7. Diagnosis
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Laboratory Studies
3. Radiologic Investigations
8. Preoperative Staging
9. Staging Laparoscopy
10. Resection of Pancreatic Carcinoma
1. Carcinoma of the Head, Neck, or Uncinate Process
2. Carcinoma of the Body and Tail
3. Postoperative Results
4. Long-Term Survival
11. Adjuvant and Neoadjuvant Therapy
12. Unresectable Pancreatic Carcinoma
13. Palliation
1. Biliary Obstruction
2. Duodenal Obstruction
14. Pain
15. Conclusion
16. References
17. Figures
1. Algorithm 55.1 International consensus guidelines for the management of IPMNs. (From Tanaka M, Fernandez-del Castillo C, Adsay V, et al. International consensus guidelines 2012 for the management of IPMN and MCN of the pancreas. Pancreatology 2012;12:183–197.)
18. Tables
1. Table 55.1 Risk Factors for Pancreatic Cancer
2. Table 55.2 Genetic Syndromes Associated with Hereditary Pancreatic Cancer
3. Table 55.3 Genetic Alterations in Pancreatic Adenocarcinomas
4. Table 55.4 Histologic Classification of 645 Cases of Primary Nonendocrine Cancer of the Pancreas
5. Table 55.5 Comparison between Mucinous Cystic Neoplasm (MCN) and Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasm (IPMN)
6. Table 55.6 Staging of Pancreatic Cancer
7. Table 55.7 Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer
8. Table 55.8 Signs of Pancreatic Cancer
9. Table 55.9 Preoperative Staging Based on CT Findings
10. Table 55.10 Randomized Prospective Trials of Standard Versus Extended Lymphadenectomy for Pancreatic Cancer
11. Table 55.11 Complications after Pancreaticoduodenectomy
12. Table 55.12 Randomized Prospective Trials of Adjuvant Therapy for Pancreatic Cancer
13. Table 55.13 Selected Neoadjuvant Trials for Potentially Resectable Pancreatic Cancer
14. Table 55.14 Prospective Randomized Trial of Prophylactic Gastrojejunostomy in Patients with Unresectable Periampullary Cancer
56: Neoplasms of the Endocrine Pancreas
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
1. Epidemiology
2. Classification
3. Molecular Genetics
1. Whole-Exome Sequencing of PENs
2. Familial Syndromes
3. Molecular Targeting of PENs
4. Diagnostic Evaluation
1. Presentation
2. Biochemical
3. Computed Tomography
4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
5. Somatostatin Receptor Scintigraphy
6. Endoscopic Ultrasound
7. Venous Sampling
5. Surgical Exploration
6. Nonfunctional Pancreatic Endocrine Neoplasms
1. Surgical Resection
2. Lymphadenectomy
7. Insulinoma
8. Gastrinoma (Zollinger–Ellison Syndrome)
9. VIPoma (Verner–Morrison Syndrome)
10. Glucagonoma
11. Somatostatinoma
12. Metastatic Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors
1. Liver-Directed Therapies
2. Somatostatin Analogs
3. Systemic Therapies
13. References
14. Figures
15. Tables
1. Table 56.1 2017 World Health Organization Classification of Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors
2. Table 56.2 Classification of Functional Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors
3. Table 56.3 Familial Genetic Syndromes Associated with Pancreatic Endocrine Neoplasms (PENs)
4. Table 56.4 Insulinoma
5. Table 56.5 Gastrinoma
6. Table 56.6 Disease States Associated with Hypergastrinemia
7. Table 56.7 VIPoma
8. Table 56.8 Differential Diagnosis of Verner–Morrison Syndrome
9. Table 56.9 Glucagonoma
10. Table 56.10 Somatostatinoma
11. Table 56.11 Seminal Randomized Controlled Trials of Systemic Therapies for Patients with Neuroendocrine Tumors
Section H: Hepatobiliary and Portal Venous System
57: Hepatobiliary Anatomy
1. Key Points
2. Topographic and Surface Anatomy
3. Morphologic and Functional Anatomy
1. Hepatic Arteries
2. Portal Veins
3. Biliary System and Gallbladder
4. Hepatic Veins
4. Liver Imaging
1. Computed Tomography
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging/Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography
5. Ultrasound and Intraoperative Liver Assessment
6. Preoperative Evaluation of Hepatic Reserve
7. Indications for Liver Resection and Oncologic Considerations
8. Nomenclature for Hepatectomies
9. Intraoperative Considerations
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 57.1 Strategies to Predict Hepatic Reserve
2. Table 57.2 Child–Pugh Classification
3. Table 57.3 MELD Score
58: Hepatic Infection and Acute Liver Failure
1. Key Points
2. Pyogenic Liver Abscess
1. Prevalence and Pathogenesis
2. Risk Factors
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Diagnosis
5. Microbiology
6. Treatment
3. Amebic Liver Abscess
1. Prevalence and Pathogenesis
2. Risk Factors
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
4. Echinococcus (Hydatid Disease)
1. Prevalence and Pathogenesis
2. Risk Factors
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
5. Schistosoma
1. Prevalence and Pathogenesis
2. Risk Factors
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
6. Viral Hepatitis
6. Hepatitis A Virus
1. Epidemiology/Risk Factors for Transmission
2. Clinical Features
3. Treatment
7. Hepatitis B Virus
1. Epidemiology/Risk Factors for Transmission
2. Clinical Features
3. Treatment
8. Hepatitis C Virus
1. Epidemiology/Risk Factors for Transmission
2. Clinical Features
3. Treatment
9. Hepatitis D Virus
1. Epidemiology/Risk Factors for Transmission
2. Clinical Features
3. Treatment
10. Hepatitis E Virus
1. Epidemiology/Risk Factors for Transmission
2. Clinical Features
3. Treatment
4. Cytomegalovirus
5. Epstein–Barr Virus
6. Herpes Simplex Virus
7. Varicella Zoster Virus
11. Acute Liver Failure
1. Definition
2. Diagnosis
3. Etiology
1. Drug-Induced Liver Injury
2. Viral Hepatitis
3. Other
4. Clinical Features, Management, and Treatment
5. Liver Transplantation
6. Life Support Systems
7. Prognosis
12. Quiz
13. References
14. Figures
15. Tables
1. Table 58.1 Classification of Viral Hepatitis
2. Table 58.2 Management in Acute Liver Failure: Initial Laboratory Evaluations
3. Table 58.3 Stages of Hepatic Encephalopathy
4. Table 58.4 King''s College Criteria of Poor Prognostic Indicators
59: Cirrhosis and Portal Hypertension
1. Key Points
2. Cirrhosis
1. Background and Definition
2. Pathophysiology
1. Treatment of Fibrosis
3. Etiology
1. Alcohol
2. Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease/Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis
3. Viral Hepatitis
4. Cholestasis
5. Primary Biliary Cholangitis
6. Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis
7. Metabolic and Genetic Disorders
8. Impaired Venous Outflow or Venous Outflow Obstruction
4. Diagnosis
5. Complications
1. Renal
1. Sodium Retention
2. Water Retention and Hyponatremia
3. Hepatorenal Syndrome
2. Pulmonary
3. Hepatic Encephalopathy
1. Etiology
2. Clinical Features
3. Treatment
3. Portal Hypertension
1. Anatomy
1. Portosystemic Collaterals
2. Pathophysiology
3. Etiology
1. Budd–Chiari Syndrome and Veno-Occlusive Disease
2. Portal Vein Thrombosis
3. Splenic Vein Thrombosis
4. Complications of Portal Hypertension
1. Varices
1. Diagnosis of Varices and Prevention of Initial Variceal Bleeding
1. Primary Prophylaxis for Prevention of Variceal Bleeding.
2. Surgical Intervention as Prevention.
3. Endoscopic Sclerotherapy and Variceal Ligation.
2. Esophageal Variceal Bleeding
1. Initial Management.
2. Pharmacologic Therapy.
3. Endoscopic Interventions.
4. Balloon Tamponade.
5. Esophageal Stenting.
6. Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt.
3. Patients Who Have Recovered from an Episode of Acute Variceal Hemorrhage
4. Surgical Decompression
1. Background.
2. Shunts.
3. Devascularization Procedures.
4. Hepatic Transplantation.
5. Gastropathy and Gastric Varices
1. Portal Hypertensive Gastropathy.
2. Ectopic Varices.
2. Ascites
1. Clinical and Laboratory Features
2. Diagnostic Paracentesis
3. Treatment
3. Hernias and Ascites
4. References
5. Figures
6. Tables
1. Table 59.1 Major Complications of Cirrhosis
2. Table 59.2 Causes of Cirrhosis
3. Table 59.3 Comparability of Terms in Three Simple Systems for Histologic Grading and Staging of Chronic Hepatitis: IASL, Metavir, and Batts–Ludwig
4. Table 59.4 Causes of Cholestasis
5. Table 59.5 Etiologic Factors in Budd–Chiari Syndrome
6. Table 59.6 Physical Findings in Cirrhosis
7. Table 59.7 International Club of Ascites (ICA-AKI) Definitions for the Diagnosis and Management of AKI in Patients with Cirrhosis
8. Table 59.8 Differential Diagnosis of Acute Azotemia in Patients with Liver Disease
9. Table 59.9 International Ascites Club (IAC) Diagnostic Criteria for Hepatorenal Syndrome Acute Kidney Injury (HRS-AKI)
10. Table 59.10 Treatment of Hepatic Encephalopathy
11. Table 59.11 Common Causes of Portal Hypertension
12. Table 59.12 Child–Turcotte Criteria for Hepatic Functional Reserve
13. Table 59.13 Primary Prophylaxis: Management for Patients with Varices That Have Not Bled
14. Table 59.14 Guidelines for Management of Patients Presenting with an Acute Bleed
15. Table 59.15 Vasoactive Agents Used in the Management of Acute Variceal Hemorrhage
16. Table 59.16 Secondary Prophylaxis: Guidelines for Prevention of Rebleeding after Variceal Hemorrhage
17. Table 59.17 Differential Diagnosis of Ascites
18. Table 59.18 Treatment of Ascites
19. Table 59.19 Bacteria Isolated from Ascitic Fluid in 519 Patients with Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis
60: Hepatic Neoplasms
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Differential Diagnosis
1. Workup
2. Diagnostic Principles
4. General Treatment Guidelines
5. Benign/Premalignant Lesions
1. Hemangioma
2. Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
3. Hepatocellular Adenoma
4. Simple Cysts
5. Mucinous Cysts (MCN and IPMN-B)
6. Malignant Lesions
1. Oncologic Appropriateness
2. Host Condition
3. Technical Resectability
7. Oncologic Appropriateness
1. Preoperative Evaluation
2. Hepatocellular Carcinoma
3. Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma
4. Colorectal Liver Metastases
5. Neuroendocrine Liver Metastases
6. Noncolorectal, Nonneuroendocrine Liver Metastases
8. Host Condition
9. Technical Resectability
1. Vascular Inflow/Outflow and Biliary Drainage
10. Flr Quantity and Quality
1. Volumetric Assessment of the Liver
2. Functional Assessment of the Liver
11. Increasing Technical Resectability
1. Portal Vein Embolization
2. Two-Stage Hepatectomy
3. Associating Liver Partition with Portal Vein Ligation for Staged Hepatectomy
12. Anatomy and Classification
13. Operative Procedures
1. Patient Positioning and Incision
2. Exposure, Mobilization, and Assessment
3. Intraoperative Ultrasound
14. General Principles of Hepatic Resections
1. Inflow Control and Preservation of the Integrity of the Biliary Tree
2. Outflow Control
3. Parenchymal Transection
15. Conclusion
16. References
17. Figures
18. Tables
1. Table 60.1 Differential Diagnosis of Hepatic Neoplasms
2. Table 60.2 Radiographic Features of Hepatic Neoplasms on Cross-Sectional Imaging (CT and MRI)
3. Table 60.3 Right Hepatectomy (Segments V–VIII)
4. Table 60.4 Left Hepatectomy (Segments II–IV)
5. Table 60.5 Left Lateral Sectorectomy (Segments II–III)
6. Table 60.6 Right Posterior Sectorectomy (Segments VI–VII)
7. Table 60.7 Partial Hepatectomy/Segmentectomy
61: Calculous Biliary Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Risk Factors for Gallstone Formation
4. Natural History of Gallstones
5. Gallstones and Gallbladder Cancer
6. Cholecystitis
1. Acute Cholecystitis
2. Clinical Manifestations
3. Imaging
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
7. Chronic Cholecystitis
8. Acute Acalculous Cholecystitis
9. Other Conditions
1. Gangrenous Cholecystitis
2. Emphysematous Cholecystitis
3. Mirizzi Syndrome
4. Cholecystoenteric Fistulae
10. Cholecystectomy
11. Technique—Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy
1. Intraoperative Cholangiogram
12. Other Approaches to Cholecystectomy
1. Single-Incision Laparoscopic Approach
2. Robotic Cholecystectomy
3. Open Cholecystectomy
13. Subtotal Cholecystectomy
1. Percutaneous Drains after Cholecystectomy
14. Complications of Cholecystectomy
15. Prophylactic Cholecystectomy
16. Percutaneous Cholecystostomy
1. Other Therapies
17. Special Considerations
1. Gallstone Pancreatitis
2. Gallbladder Cancer
3. Cholecystitis during Pregnancy
4. Cholecystitis and Cirrhosis
18. Choledocholithiasis
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Diagnosis
3. Management
4. Endoscopic Approach
5. Percutaneous Approach
19. Surgical Techniques for Choledocholithiasis
1. Laparoscopic Surgical Approach
1. Laparoscopic Common CBD Exploration (LCBDE)
2. Laparoscopic Biliary Enteric Bypass
3. Laparoscopic-Assisted Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography
2. Open Surgical Approach
1. Open Common Bile Duct Exploration
2. Transduodenal Sphincteroplasty
3. Choledochoduodenostomy and Roux-en-Y Hepaticojejunostomy
20. T-Tubes
21. Intrahepatic Stones
22. References
23. Tables
1. Table 61.1
2. Table 61.2 Tokyo Guidelines for Diagnosis of Acute Cholecystitis
3. Table 61.3 Grades of Acute Cholecystitis (Tokyo Guidelines)
4. Table 61.4 Indications for Prophylactic Cholecystectomy
5. Table 61.5 The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Predictors of Choledocholilithiasis
6. Table 61.6 ERCP Prior to Cholecystectomy vs CBD Exploration for Choledocholithiasis
7. Table 61.7 Different Techniques for Common Bile Duct Exploration
8. Table 61.8 Classification of Intrahepatic Stones
62: Biliary Injury, Strictures, and Sclerosing Cholangitis
1. Key Points
2. Bile Duct Injury
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
4. Outcomes
5. Follow-Up
3. Biliary Stricture
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
4. Outcomes
5. Follow-Up
4. Sclerosing Cholangitis
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
5. References
6. Figures
1. Algorithm 62.1 Bile duct injury.
7. Tables
1. Table 62.1 Causes of Benign Biliary Strictures
2. Table 62.2 Factors Associated with Intraoperative Bile Duct Injury
3. Table 62.3 Strasberg Classification of Bile Duct Injury
4. Table 62.4 Causes of Secondary Sclerosing Cholangitis
63: Biliary Neoplasms
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Gallbladder Carcinoma
1. Incidence
2. Pathology and Staging
3. Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
4. Surgery
1. Role of Staging Laparoscopy
2. Cholecystectomy with or without Partial Hepatectomy
3. Incidentally or Laparoscopically Discovered Gallbladder Cancer
5. Neoadjuvant and Adjuvant Therapy
6. Prognosis
7. Follow-up after Resection for Gallbladder Cancer
8. Issues for the Future
4. Bile Duct Carcinoma
5. Incidence
1. Pathology and Staging
2. Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
3. Surgery
1. Role of Staging Laparoscopy
2. Partial Hepatectomy with or without Bile Duct Resection
3. Lymphadenectomy
4. Pancreaticoduodenectomy
5. Liver Transplantation for Hilar CC and the Mayo Protocol
6. Prognosis after Resection
7. Unresectable Cholangiocarcinoma
4. Adjuvant Therapy
5. Follow-up after Resection of Cholangiocarcinoma
6. Issues for the Future
6. Benign Gallbladder Neoplasms
1. Incidence
2. Pathology
1. Polyps and Pseudotumors
2. Adenomas
3. Adenomyomatosis
4. Other Benign Gallbladder Tumors
3. Clinical Findings
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
7. Benign Bile Duct Neoplasms
1. Incidence
1. Pathology
2. Clinical Findings
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 63.1 American Joint Committee on Cancer, 8th Edition, Staging System for Gallbladder Carcinoma
2. Table 63.2 Five-Year Survival after Resection for Gallbladder Cancer
3. Table 63.3 Results after Radical Resection for Gallbladder Cancer
4. Table 63.4 American Joint Committee on Cancer, 8th Edition, Staging System for Intrahepatic Bile Duct Carcinoma
5. Table 63.5 American Joint Committee on Cancer, 8th Edition, Staging System for Perihilar Bile Duct Carcinoma
6. Table 63.6 American Joint Committee on Cancer, 8th Edition, Staging System for Distal Bile Duct Carcinoma
7. Table 63.7 Results after Resection for Hilar Cholangiocarcinoma
Section I: Colon and Rectum
64: Anatomy and Physiology of the Colon, Rectum, and Anus
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3 Embryology
4. Gross Anatomy
1. Pelvic Floor
2. Anorectal Spaces
3. Arterial Blood Supply
4. Venous Drainage
5. Lymphatic Drainage
6. Neural Components
5. Physiology
1. Colonic Flora
2. Colonic Motility
3. Defecation
4. Anal Continence
6. Conclusions
7. References
8. Figures
65: Gastrointestinal Bleeding
1. Key Points
2. Nomenclature
3. Epidemiology
4. Clinical Presentation
1. Site and Cause of Bleeding
2. Risk Factors for GI Bleeding
3. Severity of Bleeding
5. Risk Assessment and Triage
1. Risk Assessment Tools for Upper GI Bleeding
2. Risk Assessment Tools for Lower GI Bleeding
6. Resuscitation
1. Airway Management
2. Volume Resuscitation
3. Hemodynamic Monitoring
4. Nasogastric Lavage
5. Management of Antithrombotic Drugs
7. Diagnostic Algorithms
1. Up per GI Bleeding
2. Lower GI Bleeding
1. Mid-Gastrointestinal Bleeding
8. Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding
1. Peptic Ulcer Disease
2. Stress Ulceration
3. Esophagitis
4. Mallory–Weiss Syndrome
5. Dieulafoy Lesion
6. Gastroesophageal Varices
7. Clinical Outcomes for Upper GI Bleeding
9. Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding
1. Diverticular Disease
2. Internal Hemorrhoids
3. Colon Ischemia
4. Inflammatory Bowel Disease
5. Infectious Colitis
10. Mid-Gastrointestinal Bleeding
1. Angioectasia
2. Meckel Diverticulum
3. Small Bowel Diverticula
4. Aortoenteric Fistula
5. Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
11. References
12. Figures
13. Tables
1. Table 65.1 Causes of Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding and Their Relative Frequencies
2. Table 65.2 Clinical Scenarios Associated with Various Causes of Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding
3. Table 65.3 Clinical Variables Used in Risk Assessment Tools for Patients with Upper GI Bleeding
4. Table 65.4 Clinical Variables Used in Risk Assessment Tools for Patients with Lower GI Bleeding
5. Table 65.5 Management of Patients with Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding Who Are Taking Antithrombotic Medications
6. Table 65.6 Endoscopic and Medical Management of Patients with Peptic Ulcer–Related Upper GI Bleeding According to the Endoscopic Appearance of the Ulcer26,27,28,29
7. Table 65.7 Results of Three Meta-Analyses Comparing Embolization to Surgical Hemostasis for Remedial Treatment of Bleeding Peptic Ulcers81,82,83
8. Table 65.8 Relationship between Elevated Portal Pressure and Complications of Portal Hypertension48,110,111
66: Ulcerative Colitis
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Etiology and Risk Factors
1. Genetics
2. Environment
3. Microbiome
5. Clinical Features
1. Extraintestinal Disease
1. Hepatobiliary
2. Cutaneous
3. Musculoskeletal
4. Ophthalmologic
6. Diagnosis
1. Laboratory Testing
2. Imaging
3. Endoscopy
4. Pathology
1. Macroscopic Appearance
2. Microscopic Appearance
3. Differential Diagnosis
7. Management
1. Medical Management
1. Mild-to-Moderate Colitis
2. Moderate-to-Severe Colitis
3. Acute Severe Colitis
8. Surgery
1. Indications
1. Fulminant Colitis and Toxic Megacolon
2. Uncontrolled Bleeding
3. Dysplasia and Cancer
4. Failure of Medical Management
2. Surgical Management
1. Total Abdominal Colectomy with End Ileostomy
2. Completion Proctectomy/Total Proctocolectomy
3. Ileal Pouch-Anal Anastomosis
4. IPAA-Postoperative Complications
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 66.1 Clinicopathologic Features of Ulcerative Colitis versus Crohn Disease
2. Table 66.2 The Mayo Clinic Score
3. Table 66.3 Extraintestinal Manifestations of UC by Disease Activity
67: Colonic Polyps and Polyposis Syndromes
1. Key Points
2. Colonic Polyps
1. Adenomatous Polyps
2. Epidemiology
3. Histology
4. Etiology/Molecular Pathways
1. Classical Pathway
2. Microsatellite Instability Pathway
3. CpG Island Methylation Pathway
1. Progression to Cancer
5. Clinical Features
6. Serrated Polyps
1. Incidence
2. Histology
3. Progression to Cancer
7. Hyperplasic Polyps
1. Incidence
2. Histology
8. Hamartomatous Polyps
9. Inflammatory Polyps
3. Screening and Surveillance Modalities for Colonic Polyps
1. Flexible Sigmoidoscopy
2. Colonoscopy
3. CT Colonography
4. Stool-Based Tests
4. Polyposis Syndromes
1. Adenomatous Polyposis Syndromes
1. Lynch Syndrome
1. Incidence
2. Genetics/Molecular Pathways
3. Diagnosis
4. Colon Cancer Risks
5. CRC Surveillance
6. Extracolonic Cancers and Surveillance
7. Surgical Treatment of CRC in LS
2. Familial Adenomatous Polyposis/Attenuated FAP
1. Incidence
2. Genetics/Molecular Pathways
3. Diagnosis
4. Colon Cancer Risks and Surveillance
5. Extracolonic Features
6. Surveillance Protocols
7. Surgical Treatment of FAP
8. Attenuated FAP
9. MUTYH-Associated Polyposis (MAP)
10. Incidence
11. Genetics/Molecular Pathways
12. Extracolonic Features
13. Cancer Risks
14. Surveillance Protocols and Management
15. Novel Genes or Syndromes (NTHL1, CRAC1)
3. Familial CRC Type X and Undefined Syndromes
4. Serrated Polyposis Syndrome
1. Genetics
2. Diagnosis
3. Cancer Risk
4. Surveillance
2. Hamartomatous Polyposis Syndromes
1. Peutz–Jeghers Syndrome
2. Juvenile Polyposis Syndrome
3. Cowden Syndrome
4. Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcaba Syndrome
5. Conclusions
6. References
7. Figures
8. Tables
1. Table 67.1 Genetic Syndromes
2. Table 67.2 Summary of Surveillance Guidelines for Lynch Syndrome Patients
3. Table 67.3 Spigelman Classification for Duodenal Adenomas in FAP
4. Table 67.4 Summary of Surveillance Guidelines for FAP Patients
68: Colorectal Cancer
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Risk Factors
5. Molecular Characteristics
6. Histopathology and Progression
7. Staging and Prognosis
8. Screening and Prevention
1. Screening Tests
1. Stool Tests
2. Structural Tests
2. Risk Categories
1. Average Risk
2. Increased Risk
1. Family History
2. History of Polyps at Previous Colonoscopy
3. Patients with Colorectal Cancer
3. High Risk
1. Familial Adenomatous Polyposis
2. MYH-Associated Polyposis
3. Lynch Syndrome
3. Consequences of Screening
4. Implementation of Guidelines
9. Diagnosis
1. Symptoms and Signs
2. Diagnostic Evaluation
10. Treatment
1. Preoperative Preparation
2. Principles of Surgical Treatment
11. Treatment of Localized Colon Cancer
1. Malignant Colonic Polyps
2. Surgery for Localized Colon Cancer
3. Postoperative Adjuvant Therapy for Localized Colon Cancer
12. Treatment of Localized Rectal Cancer
1. Anatomy of the Rectum
2. Clinical Staging of Rectal Cancer
3. Local Excision for Early-Stage Rectal Cancer
4. Transabdominal Resection for Rectal Cancer
1. Principles of Total Mesorectal Excision
2. Sphincter Saving Procedures
3. Abdominoperineal Excision
4. Minimally Invasive Surgery for Rectal Cancer
5. Adjuvant and Neoadjuvant Radiation and Chemotherapy for Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer
6. Chemotherapy for Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer
7. Outcomes of Multimodality Treatment in Patients with Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer
8. Treatment Selection in Patients with Localized Rectal Cancer
9. Watch and Wait
13. Tumor-Related Emergencies
14. Surveillance After Curative Resection for Colon and Rectal Cancer
15. Treatment of Stage IV Colon and Rectal Cancer
1. Treatment of the Primary Tumor in Stage IV CRC
2. Surgical Treatment of Colorectal Metastases
3. Chemotherapy for Metastatic Disease
1. Principles of Chemotherapy
2. Adjuvant Chemotherapy in Resectable Disease
3. Chemotherapy in Borderline Resectable Disease
4. Treatment of Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
5. Immunotherapy for CRC
16. Treatment of Locally Recurrent CRC
17. References
18. Figures
1. Algorithm 68.1 Approach to rectal cancer according to clinical staging.
2. Algorithm 68.2 Approach to locally advanced rectal cancer based on a three-tier risk stratification system (“the good, the bad, and the ugly”).
3. Algorithm 68.3 Stage IV rectal cancer treatment algorithm.
19. Tables
1. Table 68.1 Relative Risks for Established Colorectal Cancer Risk Factors
2. Table 68.2 Histopathologic Types of Colorectal Cancer
3. Table 68.3 American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM Staging Classification for Colorectal Cancer 8th ed., 2017
4. Table 68.4 Colorectal Cancer Prognostic Factors
5. Table 68.5 Tools for Colorectal Cancer Screening
6. Table 68.6 Screening and Surveillance for Colorectal Cancer According to Riska
7. Table 68.7 Open versus Laparoscopic Rectal Resections: Results of the Most Representative Series
8. Table 68.8 Main Chemotherapeutic Agents
69: Diverticular Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Terminology and Anatomy
4. Epidemiology
1. North America and Europe
2. Africa
3. Asia
5. Etiology
1. Inherent Risk Factors: Genetic Background
2. Inherent Risk Factors: Changes in Colonic Structure and Function
3. Environmental Risk Factors: Diet and Lifestyle
4. Environmental Risk Factors: Microbiome
6. Acute Diverticulitis
1. Presentation and Differential Diagnosis
2. Diagnosis
7. Treatment
1. Acute Uncomplicated Diverticulitis
2. Acute Complicated Diverticulitis
1. Intra-Abdominal Abscess
3. Perforated Diverticulitis with Peritonitis
1. Surgical Technique—Urgent Operation for Perforated Diverticulitis
8. Diverticulitis—Recurrent and Chronic Inflammatory Presentations
1. Recurrent Diverticulitis
1. Surgical Technique—Elective Sigmoid Colectomy for Recurrent Diverticulitis
2. Fistula, Stenosis, and Obstruction
1. Surgical Technique—Operation for Diverticular Fistula
3. Less Common Presentations of Diverticular Disease
1. Giant Diverticula
2. Right-Sided Diverticulitis
3. Diverticular Hemorrhage
9. Summary
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 69.1 Inherent and Environmental Risk Factors Associated with Diverticular Disease
2. Table 69.2 Modified Hinchey Classification, Expected CT Imaging Findings, and Likely Initial Treatment Strategy for Increasingly Severe Presentations of Diverticulitis
70: Anorectal Disorders
1. Key Points
2. Anatomy and Physiology
1. The Rectum
2. The Anal Canal and Pelvic Floor
1. Anal Canal
2. Anorectal Spaces
3. Blood Supply and Innervation
3. Physiology
3. Diagnostic Evaluation of the Anus
4. Benign Anorectal Disease
1. Hemorrhoids
1. Clinical Manifestations
1. Internal Hemorrhoids
2. External Hemorrhoids
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
1. Nonoperative Management
2. Office-Based Treatments
4. Operative Treatment
5. Special Hemorrhoid Situations
1. Thrombosed External Hemorrhoids
2. Incarcerated Hemorrhoids
3. Gangrenous Hemorrhoids
2. Anal Fissure
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Management
1. Medical Management
2. Botulinum Toxin Injection
3. Surgical Management
3. Anorectal Abscess
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Management
4. Anal Fistula
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Management
4. Anal Fistula and Crohn Disease
5. Anovaginal and Rectovaginal Fistulae
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Box 70.1 Classification of Anal Fistulas
3. Evaluation
4. Management
5. Pilonidal Disease
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Management
6. Fecal Incontinence
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Evaluation
3. Management
1. Bowel Management Program
2. Pelvic Floor Physical Therapy
3. Sacral Neuromodulation
4. Sphincter Repair and Augmentation
7. Rectal Prolapse
1. Clinical Manifestation
2. Evaluation
3. Management
1. Abdominal Operations for Rectal Prolapse
2. Perineal Operations for Rectal Prolapse
5. Sexually Transmitted Diseases of the Anorectum
1. Gonorrhea
1. Clinical Manifestation
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
2. Chlamydia/Lymphogranuloma Venereum
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
3. Herpes Simplex Virus
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
4. HIV and AIDS
5. Condyloma Acuminata and Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
6. Neoplastic Anorectal Disease
1. Squamous Cell Carcinoma
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
1. Anal Margin Tumors
2. Anal Canal Tumors
7. Adenocarcinoma
1. Paget Disease
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
2. Anal Canal Adenocarcinoma
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Treatment
3. Basal Cell Carcinoma
1. Evaluation
2. Treatment
4. Melanoma
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Evaluation
3. Treatment
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 70.1 Symptoms of Common Benign Pathology
2. Table 70.2 The Complete Digital Rectal Examination
3. Table 70.3 Hemorrhoidal Classification
4. Table 70.4 Treatment Options and Outcome for Chronic Pilonidal Sinus
5. Table 70.5 Anal Manometric Parameters
71: Appendiceal Diseases
1. Key Points
2. Anatomy and Physiology
3. Appendicitis
1. Etiology and Pathophysiology
2. Diagnosis
1. History and Physical Examination
2. Laboratory and Imaging Studies
3. Differential Diagnosis
3. Management
1. Complicated Appendicitis
2. Surgical Approaches
3. Nonoperative Management of Uncomplicated Appendicitis
4. Special Populations
1. Pregnancy
2. Elderly Patients
3. Low- and Middle-Income Countries
4. Appendiceal Neoplasms
1. Neuroendocrine Tumors
2. Appendiceal Mucinous Neoplasms
3. Adenocarcinomas
5. References
6. Figures
7. Tables
1. Table 71.1 Signs of Acute Appendicitis on Physical Examination
2. Table 71.2 Grading Schemes to Assess Risk of Acute Appendicitis
Section J: Hernia and Spleen
72: Abdominal Wall Hernias
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Anatomy of the Abdominal Core
1. Diaphragm
2. Anterior Abdominal Wall and Flanks
1. Superficial Fascia, Vessels, and Nerves
2. Anterior Musculature and Ligaments
3. External Abdominal Oblique Muscle and Associated Ligaments
4. Internal Abdominal Oblique Muscle and Aponeurosis
5. Transversus Abdominis Muscle and Aponeurosis
6. Rectus Abdominis
7. Rectus Sheath
8. Innervation and Blood Supply of the Anterior Abdominal Wall
3. Posterolateral (Lumbar) Abdominal Wall
1. Deep Inguinal Region
1. Minimally Invasive View
2. Transversalis Fascia
3. Transversalis Fascia Derivatives
4. Femoral Sheath, Canal, and Ring
5. Inguinal (Hesselbach''s) Triangle
6. Components of the Spermatic Cord
7. Branches of the Lumbar Plexus
4. Vasculature of the Abdominal Wall and Deep Inguinal Region
5. Pelvic Floor and Obturator Muscles
4. Why Do Human Beings Develop Abdominal Wall Hernias?
5. Complications of Hernias
1. Hernia Accident
2. Incarceration
3. Intestinal Obstruction
4. Strangulation
5. Richter Hernia
1. Prosthetic Materials Used in Hernia Repair
1. Biologic Mesh
2. Absorbable Synthetic Mesh
3. Permanent Synthetic Mesh
4. Mesh Properties
5. Hybrid Mesh
6. Groin Hernias
1. Epidemiology
2. Classification
3. Clinical Diagnosis
4. Differential Diagnosis
1. Surgical Indications
5. Preoperative Considerations
6. Surgical Treatment of Groin Hernias
1. Open Approach
2. Preperitoneal Approach
3. Laparoscopic Approach
1. Laparoscopic versus Conventional Herniorrhaphy; Mesh versus Non-Mesh
2. Robotic-Assisted versus Laparoscopic Inguinal Herniorrhaphy
3. Patient and Procedure Selection
4. Operative Techniques
1. Transabdominal Preperitoneal Repair
2. Totally Extraperitoneal Repair
3. Intraperitoneal Onlay Mesh Repair
5. Special Considerations: Pediatric Hernias
7. Femoral Hernias
7. Sports Hernia/Athletic Pubalgia
1. Complications of Inguinal Hernia Repair
1. Complications Related to the Patient
1. Urinary Retention
2. Ileus
2. Complications Related to the Herniorrhaphy
1. Recurrence
2. Postherniorrhaphy Groin Pain
3. Cord and Testicles
1. Infertility
2. Ischemic Orchitis
3. Miscellaneous
4. Wound Infection
5. Serom as
6. Bleeding
7. Prosthetic Complications
4. Complications Related to Laparoscopy
1. Vascular Injury
2. Gas Embolism
3. Visceral Injury
4. Bladder Injury
5. Bowel Obstruction
6. Diaphragmatic Dysfunction
7. Hypercapnia
8. Ventral Abdominal Wall Hernias
9. Umbilical and Periumbilical Hernias
10. Epigastric Hernias
11. Incisional Hernias
1. Treatment of Ventral Hernias
1. General Principles
2. Preoperative Preparation
3. Surgical Techniques
1. Nonprosthetic Repairs
2. Prosthetic Repairs
1. Onlay Prosthetic Technique
2. Prosthetic Bridging Technique
3. Sublay Prosthetic Technique
3. Myofascial Release (i.e., Component Separation)
1. Anterior Component Separation
2. Transversus Abdominis Release/Posterior Component Separation
4. Laparoscopic Ventral Hernia Repair
5. Robotic-Assisted Ventral Hernia Repair
4. Massive Hernia with Loss of Domain
1. Progressive Preoperative Pneumoperitoneum
2. Chemical Component Separation
3. Tissue Expansion
4. Visceral Reduction
5. Parastomal Hernias
6. Prophylactic Mesh Placement
12. Unusual Hernias
1. Spigelian Hernia
2. Lumbar and Flank Hernias
3. Obturator Hernia
4. Sciatic Hernia
5. Supravesical Hernia
6. Interparietal Hernia
7. Littre Hernia
8. Perineal Hernia
9. Perivascular Hernia
13. Complications of Ventral Hernia Repair
1. General Complications
2. Surgical Site Infection
3. Surgical Site Occurrence
4. Mesh-Related Complications
1. Complications Related to Laparoscopy
14. References
15. Figures
1. Algorithm 72.1 Management of initial inguinal hernia.
2. Algorithm 72.2 Management of recurrent inguinal hernia.
3. Algorithm 72.3 Management of groin pain after herniorraphy.
4. Algorithm 72.4 Management of incisional hernia.
16. Tables
1. Table 72.1 Anatomic Terms with Common Synonyms and Eponyms
2. Table 72.2 Risk Factors for the Development of an Inguinal Hernia
3. Table 72.3 EHS Classification of Groin Hernias
4. Table 72.4 Nyhus Classification of Groin Hernias
5. Table 72.5 Differential Diagnosis of a Groin Hernia
6. Table 72.6 Essential Steps for Open Inguinal Hernia Repair
7. Table 72.7 Conditions Other Than a Hernia Associated with Groin Pain
8. Table 72.8 Classification of Ventral Abdominal Wall Hernias
9. Table 72.9 Zollinger Classification of Ventral Abdominal Wall Hernias
10. Table 72.10 European Hernia Society (EHS) Classification of Incisional Hernia
11. Table 72.11 Ventral Hernia Working Group (VHWG) Classification of Incisional Hernia
12. Table 72.12 European Hernia Society (EHS) Classification of Parastomal Hernias
13. Table 72.13 Indications for Repair of a Parastomal Hernia
14. Table 72.14 Types of Lumbar Hernia
15. Table 72.15 Complications of Herniorrhaphy
16. Table 72.16 HW RAT Breakdown of Risk Factors for Wound Complications
17. Table 72.17 Summarizes the International Guidelines for Groin Hernia Management
73: The Spleen
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. History
4. Embryology and Anatomy
5. Physiology
1. Hematologic Function of the Spleen
2. Immunologic Function of the Spleen
6. Pathophysiology
1. Hyposplenism
2. Hypersplenism
7. Surgical Treatment for Diseases Relating to the Spleen
1. Trauma to the Spleen
2. Autoimmune and Erythrocyte Disorders
1. Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura
2. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
3. Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
4. Autoimmune Neutropenia (Felty Syndrome)
5. Hereditary Spherocytosis
6. Hereditary Elliptocytosis
7. Hereditary Nonspherocytic Hemolytic Anemia
8. Thalassemia
9. Sickle Cell Disease
10. Wiskott–Aldrich Syndrome
3. Hypersplenism
1. Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
2. Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
3. Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
4. Hairy Cell Leukemia
5. Myelodysplastic Syndrome
6. Metastatic Disease to the Spleen
7. Gaucher Disease
8. Incidental Splenectomy
9. Iatrogenic Splenectomy
10. Diagnostic Splenectomy
11. Vascular Disorders of the Spleen
1. Splenic Vein Thrombosis
2. Splenic Artery Aneurysm
12. Miscellaneous Indications for Splenectomy
1. Cysts of the Spleen
2. Abscess of the Spleen
3. Ectopic Spleen (Wandering Spleen)
13. Splenectomy: Operative Technique
1. Preoperative Evaluation
2. Description of Procedure
1. Open Splenectomy—Nontraumatic
2. Open Splenectomy—Traumatic
3. Laparoscopic Splenectomy
4. Hand-Assisted Laparoscopic Splenectomy
5. Robotic Splenectomy
6. Partial Splenectomy
14. Sequelae of Splenectomy and Hyposplenism
1. Postsplenectomy Sepsis
2. Vascular Complications Following Splenectomy
15. References
16. Figures
1. Schematic of port placement for hand-assisted laparoscopic splenectomy.
17. Tables
1. Table 73.1 Normal Functions of the Spleen
2. Table 73.2 Hematologic Changes Postsplenectomy/Hyposplenic Condition
3. Table 73.3 Causes/Disorders Associated with Hyposplenism
4. Table 73.4 Causes of Hypersplenism
5. Table 73.5 Indications for Splenectomy in Two Large Series
6. Table 73.6 Grading of Splenic Injuries
7. Table 73.7 Final Pathologic Diagnoses in 122 Spleens Removed for Diagnostic Purposes
Section K: Surgical Endocrinology
74: Breast Disease
1. Key Points
2. Anatomy
1. Surgical Anatomy of the Breast
2. Lymphatic Drainage
3. Breast Physiology
1. Breast Development
2. Pregnancy and Lactation
3. Menopause
4. Clinical Evaluation of the Patient With Breast Disease
1. Clinical Breast Examination
2. Diagnostic Mammography and Breast Ultrasound
3. Diagnostic MRI
4. Biopsy Procedures
1. Fine-Needle Aspiration (FNA)
2. Core Needle Biopsy
3. Incisional Biopsy
4. Excisional Biopsy
5. Skin Punch Biopsy
5. Common Clinical Problems and Management Algorithms
1. Breast Mass
2. Breast Pain
3. Nipple Discharge
4. Breast Infections
6. Benign Breast Disease
1. Nonproliferative Breast Lesions
2. Proliferative Breast Lesions without Atypia
3. Proliferative Breast Lesions with Atypia
4. Lobular Carcinoma In Situ (LCIS)
7. Management of Patients at High Risk for Breast Cancer
1. Risk Factors
1. Increasing Age
2. Estrogen Exposure
3. Environmental and Lifestyle Factors
4. Family History
2. Clinical Risk Assessment
3. Management
8. Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (Dcis)
9. Evaluation of the Patient With Breast Cancer
1. AJCC TNM Staging
2. Histologic Subtype and Tumor Grade
3. Biomarker Profile (ER, PR, HER2)
4. Molecular Subtyping
5. Breast MRI
6. Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
10. Treatment of the Patient With Breast Cancer
1. Overview
2. Surgical Therapy
1. Partial Mastectomy
2. Axillary Lymph Node Dissection
3. Simple Mastectomy
4. Breast Reconstruction
5. Radical Mastectomy
3. Radiation Therapy
4. Chemotherapy
1. Anthracyclines (doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin)
2. Taxanes (paclitaxel, docetaxel)
3. Cyclophosphamide
4. 5-Fluorouracil
5. Methotrexate
6. Platinum Agents (carboplatin or cisplatin)
5. Endocrine Therapy
1. Blocking Ovarian Function (leuprolide, goserelin, buserelin)
2. Blocking Estrogen at the Receptor (tamoxifen, raloxifene, fulvestrant)
3. Blocking Estrogen Production (anastrozole, letrozole, exemestane)
6. Targeted Therapy
1. Targeted Therapy for HER2+ Breast Cancers
2. Targeted Therapy for Triple Negative Breast Cancers (experimental options)
7. Special Issues in Breast Cancer Treatment
1. Inflammatory Breast Cancer
8. Breast Cancer in the Elderly
9. Breast Cancer during Pregnancy
10. Breast Cancer in Men
11. Locoregional Breast Cancer Recurrence
12. Paget Disease of the Breast
13. Phyllodes Tumor
11. References
12. Figures
1. Algorithm 74.1 Diagnosis and management of the patient with a clinically benign breast mass. The use of imaging studies varies according to age because breast carcinoma is infrequent in women younger than 35 years old.
2. Algorithm 74.2 Diagnosis and management of the patient with a clinically indeterminate or suspicious solid breast mass. In this circumstance, imaging studies are insufficient to exclude malignancy, and tissue sampling is required.
3. Algorithm 74.3 Diagnosis and management of the patient with a cystic lesion. Bloody fluid on aspiration, failure of the mass to resolve completely, and prompt refilling of the same cyst are indications for surgical biopsy.
13. Tables
1. Table 74.1 Medical History of a Breast Problem
2. Table 74.2 Indications for Surgical Biopsy after Core Biopsy
3. Table 74.3 Management of Breast Masses Based on Core Biopsy Diagnosis
4. Table 74.4 Classification of Benign Breast Disease
5. Table 74.5 Risk for Breast Cancer Development after Lobular Carcinoma in Situ
6. Table 74.6 Estimated Lifetime Cancer Risks for BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutations (To Age 70)
7. Table 74.7 Magnitude of Known Breast Cancer Risk Factors
8. Table 74.8 Results of Randomized Trials of Radiotherapy in Ductal Carcinoma in Situ
9. Table 74.9 Tumor, Node, Metastasis (TNM) Classification for Breast Cancer Staging
10. Table 74.10 Approach to the Axillary Nodes
11. Table 74.11 Results of Prospective, Multi-Institutional Studies of Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Node Biopsy
12. Table 74.12 Recommendations for Adjuvant Therapy
13. Table 74.13 Survival in Prospective Randomized Trials Comparing Breast-Conserving Therapy with Mastectomy
14. Table 74.14 Contraindications to Breast-Conserving Therapy in Invasive Carcinoma
75: Thyroid Gland
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Embryology
4. Anatomy of the Thyroid
1. Vasculature
2. Lymphatics
3. Nerves
4. Parathyroid Glands
5. Thyroid Physiology
6. Clinical Evaluation of the Patient With a Thyroid Disorder
7. Laboratory Assessment of Thyroid Abnormalities
1. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin, TSH)
2. Free versus Total Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Thyroglobulin and Thyroglobulin Antibodies
4. Thyroid Autoantibodies
5. Calcitonin
8. Radiographic Assessment of Thyroid Abnormalities
1. Ultrasound
2. Radionuclide Imaging
3. Positron Emission Tomography
4. Computed Tomography and/or Magnetic Resonance Imaging
9. Thyroid Disorders Characterized by Hyperthyroidism
1. Toxic Adenoma
2. Toxic Multinodular Goiter
3. Graves Disease
4. Thyroid Storm
10. Thyroid Disorders Associated With Hypothyroidism
11. Thyroiditis
1. Hashimoto Thyroiditis
2. Postpartum Thyroiditis and Painless Sporadic Thyroiditis
3. Subacute Thyroiditis
4. Amiodarone-Induced Thyrotoxicosis or Thyroiditis
5. Acute Thyroiditis
6. Riedel Thyroiditis
12. Nodular Thyroid Disease
1. Multinodular Goiter
2. Uninodular Disease
3. Substernal or Intrathoracic Thyroid Nodular Disease
4. Thyroid Cytopathology
5. Bethesda Classification
6. Molecular Evaluation
13. Differentiated Thyroid Cancer
1. Papillary Thyroid Cancer
2. Papillary Thyroid Cancer: Nonoperative Management
3. Follicular Thyroid Cancer
4. Noninvasive Follicular Thyroid Neoplasm with Papillary-Like Nuclear Features
5. Hurthle Cell Cancer
14. Medullary Thyroid Cancer
15. Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer
16. Other Thyroid Malignancies
17. Staging of Differentiated, Medullary, and Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer
18. Nonsurgical Therapeutic Adjuncts for Thyroid Cancer
1. TSH Suppression
2. Radioiodine Therapy
3. External-Beam Radiation Therapy
4. Metastatic Disease and Systemic Therapy
19. Thyroid Surgery
1. Technique
2. Surgical Energy Devices
3. Intraoperative Nerve Monitoring
4. Extent of Operation
5. Lymph Node Dissection
20. Complications
1. Hypoparathyroidism
2. Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Injury
3. Hematoma
21. References
22. Figures
23. Tables
1. Table 75.1 Medical and Surgical Implications of Embryologic Thyroid Anomalies
2. Table 75.2 Symptoms of Hypo- or Hyperthyroidism
3. Table 75.3 Guidelines for Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy of Thyroid Nodules
4. Table 75.4 Comparison of Thyroidectomy, Radioactive Iodine Ablation, and Medical Therapy for Thyrotoxicosis
5. Table 75.5 The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology with Suggested Management and Corresponding Risk of Malignancy
6. Table 75.6 Disease Phenotypes Associated with Medullary Thyroid Cancer
7. Table 75.7 The American Joint Committee on Cancer Tumor-Node-Metastasis 8th Edition Staging System for Papillary Thyroid Cancer, (A) Tumor Staging, (B) Nodal Staging, and (C) Stage Grouping and Anticipated 10-yr Disease-Specific Survival, with modifications for Medullary Thyroid Cancer (D), and Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer (E)
8. Table 75.7A Tumor Staging
9. Table 75.7B Nodal Staging
10. Table 75.7C Stage Grouping and Anticipated 10-Yr Disease-Specific Survival
11. Table 75.7D Staging Groups for Medullary Thyroid Cancer
12. Table 75.7E Staging Groups for Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer
76: Parathyroid Glands
1. Key Points
2. Anatomy
3. Physiology
1. Calcium
2. Phosphate
3. Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism
1. Parathyroid Hormone
2. Vitamin D
3. Calcitonin
4. Mineral Homeostasis
4. Pathophysiology
4. Hypercalcemia
1. Clinical Manifestations
2. Differential Diagnosis
3. Etiology
1. Hyperparathyroidism
2. Malignancy
3. Vitamin D and Vitamin A Intoxication
4. Thiazide Diuretics
5. Hyperthyroidism
6. Milk–Alkali Syndrome
7. Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Diseases
8. Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia
9. Immobilization
10. Other Causes
4. Medical Treatment
5. Hypocalcemia
1. Clinical Features
2. Etiology
1. Postoperative Hypoparathyroidism
2. Idiopathic Hypoparathyroidism
3. Vitamin D Deficiency
4. Pseudohypoparathyroidism
5. Hypomagnesemia
6. Other Causes
3. Treatment
6. Hyperparathyroidism
1. Definitions
2. Incidence
3. Etiology
4. Pathology
1. Single-Gland versus Multiple-Gland Disease
2. Carcinoma
5. Systemic Effects
1. Renal Manifestations
2. Skeletal Manifestations
3. Gastrointestinal Manifestations
4. Neuromuscular Manifestations
5. Psychological Manifestations
6. Other Manifestations
7. Physical Findings
8. Laboratory Findings
1. Calcium
2. Parathyroid Hormone
3. Phosphate
4. Bicarbonate
5. Magnesium
6. Other Diagnostic Tests
9. Localization with Imaging Techniques
6. Treatment
1. Indications for Surgery
2. Management of Asymptomatic Hyperparathyroidism
7. Principles of Surgical Correction
8. Limited Surgical Exploration
1. Extent of Resection
2. Technique of Parathyroid Autotransplantation
9. Special Situations
1. Persistent or Recurrent Hyperparathyroidism
2. Hypercalcemic Crisis
3. Hyperparathyroidism in Pregnancy
4. Neonatal Hyperparathyroidism
5. Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
6. Parathyroid Carcinoma
7. Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia
1. Pathogenesis
2. Clinical Features and Management of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1
1. Parathyroid Disease
2. Pancreatic Tumors
3. Pituitary Adenomas
4. Other Tumors
3. Clinical Features and Management of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2
1. Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma
2. Pheochromocytoma
3. Parathyroid Disease
4. Nonendocrine Manifestations of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2B
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 76.1 Hormonal Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism
2. Table 76.2 Clinical Features of Hypercalcemia
3. Table 76.3 Causes of Hypercalcemia
4. Table 76.4 Treatment of Hypercalcemia
5. Table 76.5 Clinical Features of Hypocalcemia
6. Table 76.6 Causes of Hypocalcemia
7. Table 76.7 Treatment of Hypocalcemia
8. Table 76.8 Gland Enlargement in 1,002 Consecutive Patients with Primary Hyperparathyroidism
9. Table 76.9 National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Indications for Surgical Intervention in Patients with Asymptomatic Primary Hyperparathyroidism
77: Adrenal Gland
1. Key Points
2. Anatomy
3. Biochemistry and Physiology
1. Adrenal Cortex
1. Cortisol
2. Aldosterone
3. Adrenal Androgens
2. Adrenal Medulla
4. Adrenal Neoplasms and Diseases
1. Incidental Adrenal Mass
1. Diagnosis
2. Treatment
5. Diseases of the Adrenal Cortex
1. Hypercortisolism
1. Signs and Symptoms
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment
2. Hyperaldosteronism
1. Signs and Symptoms
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment
4. Adrenocortical Carcinoma
1. Signs and Symptoms
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment
6. Diseases of the Adrenal Medulla
1. Pheochromocytoma/Paraganglioma
1. Signs and Symptoms
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment
2. Metastasis to the Adrenal Glands
7. Adrenalectomy
1. Laparoscopic Transabdominal Adrenalectomy
2. Posterior Retroperitoneoscopic Adrenalectomy
3. Anterior Open Approach
4. Thoracoabdominal Approach
8. Adrenal Insufficiency
1. Signs and Symptoms
2. Diagnosis
3. Treatment
9. Bibliography
10. Figures
1. Algorithm 77.1 Diagnosis and management of the incidental adrenal mass. PRA, plasma renin activity; PAC, plasma aldosterone concentration; HTN, hypertension; CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; FNA, fine-needle aspiration.
2. Algorithm 77.2 Diagnosis of hypercortisolism. ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone; IRMA, immunoradiometric assay; CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; PET, positron emission tomography.
3. Algorithm 77.3 Diagnosis and management of hyperaldosteronism. PRA, plasma renin activity; PAC, plasma aldosterone concentration; CT, computed tomography; AVS, bilateral adrenal venous sampling.
11. Tables
1. Table 77.1 Systemic Effects of Cortisol
2. Table 77.2 Effects of Aldosterone Secretion
3. Table 77.3 Catecholamine Effects
4. Table 77.4 Diagnosis Summary of Tests for Evaluation of Incidental Adrenal Mass
5. Table 77.5 American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging of Adrenocortical Carcinoma
6. Table 77.6 Critical Steps in Laparoscopic Transabdominal Adrenalectomy
7. Table 77.7 Symptoms and Signs of Acute Adrenal Insufficiency
78: Pituitary Surgery
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Anatomy
4. Pathology of Sellar Lesions
1. Pituitary Adenomas
1. Prolactinomas (Lactotroph Adenomas)
2. Growth Hormone–Secreting Adenomas (Somatotroph Adenomas)
3. ACTH-Secreting Adenomas (Corticotroph Adenomas)
4. TSH-Secreting Adenomas (Thyrotroph Adenomas)
5. Gonadotroph Adenomas
6. Null Cell Adenomas
7. “Atypical” Adenomas and Pituitary Carcinomas
2. Nonadenomatous Lesions of the Sella
1. Neoplasms
2. Cysts
3. Inflammatory Lesions
5. Molecular Pathogenesis
6. Endocrine Evaluation
1. Pituitary Hypofunction (Hypopituitarism)
2. Hypersecretory Syndromes
1. Excess Prolactin (Prolactinomas)
2. Excess Cortisol (Cushing Syndrome)
3. Excess Growth Hormone (Acromegaly)
4. TSH Adenomas
3. Endocrine Evaluation of a Pituitary “Incidentaloma”
7. Neurologic Evaluation in Pituitary Adenomas
8. Imaging of Pituitary Adenomas
1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
2. Computerized Tomography
3. MRI Characteristics of Pituitary Tumors and Other Sellar Lesions
9. Surgical Technique
1. Approach
2. Navigation
10. Visualization
1. Determining the Adequacy of Resection
2. Surgical Technique
3. Postoperative Management
11. Results and Complications
1. Prolactinomas
2. Acromegaly
3. Cushing Disease
12. Management of Pituitary Adenomas by Syndrome
1. Prolactinomas
2. Acromegaly
3. Cushing Disease
4. Nonfunctioning Tumors
5. Thyrotropin-Secreting Pituitary Adenomas
13. Socioeconomic Considerations
14. References
15. Figures
1. Algorithm 78.1 Treatment algorithm for acromegaly.
2. Algorithm 78.2 Treatment algorithm for Cushing disease.
16. Tables
1. Table 78.1 Tumors of the Pituitary Gland
2. Table 78.2 Differential Diagnosis of Nonpituitary Sellar Lesions
3. Table 78.3 Causes of Hyperprolactinemia
4. Table 78.4 Conditions Associated with Cortisol Excess
5. Table 78.5 Comparison of Outcomes and Complications in Endoscopic and Microscopic Approaches for Resection of Pituitary Adenomas
6. Table 78.6 Medications Used to Treat Prolactin-Secreting Pituitary Adenomas
7. Table 78.7 Medications Used to Treat Acromegaly
8. Table 78.8 Medications Used to Treat Cushing Disease
Section L: Lung
79: Lung Neoplasms
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Molecular Tumor Genomics
5. Non–Small Cell Lung Carcinoma
1. Overview
2. Diagnosis for Non–Small Cell Lung Carcinoma
3. Staging of Non–Small Cell Lung Carcinoma
4. Treatment
6. Pulmonary Carcinoid Tumors
7. Large Cell Neuroendocroine Carcinoma
8. Small Cell Lung Carcinoma
9. Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma
10. Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma
1. Hamartoma
11. References
12. Figures
13. Tables
1. Table 79.1 WHO Histologic Classification of Malignant Lung Neoplasms
2. Table 79.2 WHO Histologic Classification of Benign Lung Neoplasms
3. Table 79.3 Comparison of 8th and 7th Editions of TNM Classification for Lung Cancer
80: Nonneoplastic Thoracic Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Chest Wall Anatomy
4. Chest Wall Neoplasms
5. Benign Soft Tissue Tumors
6. Benign Bony/Cartilaginous Tumors
7. Malignant Soft Tissue Tumors
8. Malignant Bony/Cartilaginous Tumors
9. Metastatic Tumors
10. Chest Wall Reconstruction
11. Chest Wall Congenital Abnormalities and Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
1. Pectus Excavatum and Pectus Carinatum
2. Sternal Clefts
3. Poland Syndrome
4. Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
12. Nonneoplastic Lung Disease
1. Lung Abscess and Bronchiectasis
2. Hemoptysis
3. COPD and Lung Volume Reduction
4. Tracheobronchial Foreign-Body Aspiration
5. Pneumothorax
6. Congenital Lung Disease
7. Pulmonary Sequestrations
8. Congenital Lobar Emphysema
9. Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation
10. Bronchogenic Cysts
11. Pleural Disease
13. Pleural Effusions
1. Empyema
2. Mesothelioma
3. Trachea
4. Anatomy
5. Surgical Airways
6. Tracheal Tumors
7. Tracheomalacia and Airway Stents
8. Mediastinum
9. Anterior Mediastinum
10. Middle and Posterior Mediastinum
11. Pediatric Mediastinum
12. Mediastinitis
13. Superior Vena Cava Syndrome
14. References
15. Figures
1. Algorithm 80.1 Algorithm for management of lung abscess. (Adapted from Shields TW, ed. General Thoracic Surgery. 6th ed. 2005.)
2. Algorithm 80.2 Hemoptysis management. (Adapted from Jean-Baptiste E. Clinical assessment and management of massive hemoptysis. Crit Care Med 2000;28(5):1642–1647.)
3. Algorithm 80.3 LVRS candidate workup. (Adapted from Martinez FJ, Chang A. Surgical therapy for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2005;26(2):167–191.)
4. Algorithm 80.4 Algorithm to treat pneumothorax. (Adapted from Baumann MH, Noppen M. Pneumothorax. Respirology 2004;9(2):157–164.)
5. Algorithm 80.5 Algorithm for management of tracheal masses. (Adapted from Wood DE. Management of malignant tracheobronchial obstruction. Surg Clin North Am 2002;82(3):621–642.)
16. Tables
1. Table 80.1 Chest Wall Tumor Classification
2. Table 80.2 Phases of Lung Development Classification
3. Table 80.3 The Stocker Classification of CCAM
4. Table 80.4 Differential Diagnosis of Pleural Effusions
5. Table 80.5 Criteria for Exudative Effusions Based on Ratio of Pleural Fluid Protein and LDH Concentrations to Serum Concentration
6. Table 80.6 Diagnostic Criteria for Pleural Fluid in Empyema
7. Table 80.7 The International Mesothelioma Interest Group (IMIG) and IASLC Staging System
8. Table 80.8 Tracheostomy Complications
9. Table 80.9 Classification of Airway Stents
10. Table 80.10 Location of Primary Mediastinal Masses in Adults and Children
11. Table 80.11 IASLC Staging System for Thymoma
12. Table 80.12 Mediastinal Tumors in Children
Section M: Vascular Disease
81: Congenital Heart Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. History
4. Atrial Septal Defect
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
5. Ventricular Septal Defect
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
6. Atrioventricular Septal Defect
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
7. Tetralogy of Fallot
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
8. Transposition of the Great Arteries
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
9. Truncus Arteriosus
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
10. Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
11. Aortic Stenosis
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology of Valvar Aortic Stenosis
3. Diagnostic Findings of Valvar AS in the Neonate or Infant
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options for Valvar AS in the Neonate or Infant
5. Diagnostic Findings of Valvar AS in the Older Child
6. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options for Valvar AS in the Older Patient
7. Anatomy and Pathophysiology of Subvalvar Aortic Stenosis
8. Diagnostic Findings of Subvalvar AS
9. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options for Subvalvar AS
10. Anatomy and Pathophysiology of Supravalvar Aortic Stenosis
11. Diagnostic Findings of Supravalvar AS
12. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options for Supravalvar AS
12. Coarctation of the Aorta
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
13. Patent Ductus Arteriosus
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
14. Vascular Rings
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
1. Complete Rings
2. Partial Rings
3. Diagnostic Findings
4. Indications for Intervention and Treatment Options
1. Complete Rings
2. Partial Rings
3. Outcomes
15. Coronary Artery Anomalies
1. Embryology
2. Background
3. Coronary Arteriovenous Fistula
4. Coronary Artery Origin from the Pulmonary Artery
5. Anomalous Aortic Origin of Coronary Artery
6. Myocardial Bridging
7. Coronary Artery Aneurysms
16. References
17. Figures
18. Tables
1. Table 81.1 Secundum ASD via Limited Sternotomy
2. Table 81.2 VSD via Sternotomy
3. Table 81.3 Complete AVSD via Sternotomy
4. Table 81.4 Complete Repair of TOF via Sternotomy
5. Table 81.5 Arterial Switch Operation via Sternotomy
6. Table 81.6 Collett and Edwards Classification of Truncus Arteriosus
7. Table 81.7 Repair of Truncus Arteriosus via Sternotomy
8. Table 81.8 Repair of Coarctation of the Aorta in the Infant
82: Valvular Heart Disease
1. Key Points
2. Valvular Anatomy
3. Aortic Stenosis
1. Prevalence and Etiology
1. Degenerative Calcific Aortic Stenosis
2. Bicuspid Aortic Stenosis
3. Rheumatic Aortic Stenosis
2. Pathophysiology
3. Diagnosis
1. Symptoms
2. Signs
4. Electrocardiogram and Imaging
5. Natural History
6. Treatment
1. Surgical Aortic Valve Replacement
2. Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement
3. Percutaneous Balloon Aortic Valvuloplasty
4. Aortic Regurgitation
1. Prevalence and Etiology
2. Pathophysiology
3. Diagnosis
1. Symptoms
2. Signs
4. Imaging
5. Natural History
6. Treatment
5. Mitral Stenosis
1. Prevalence and Etiology
2. Pathophysiology
3. Diagnosis
1. Symptoms
2. Signs
4. Imaging
5. Natural History
6. Treatment
1. Percutaneous Balloon Mitral Valvuloplasty
2. Open Mitral Commissurotomy
3. Mitral Valve Replacement
6. Mitral Regurgitation
1. Prevalence and Etiology
2. Pathophysiology
3. Diagnosis
1. Symptoms
2. Signs
4. Imaging
5. Natural History
6. Treatment
7. Tricuspid Valve Disease
1. Valve Prostheses
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 82.1 Classification of Aortic Stenosis Severity
2. Table 82.2 Classification of Aortic Regurgitation Severity
3. Table 82.3 Classification of Mitral Stenosis Severity
4. Table 82.4 Classification of Primary Mitral Regurgitation Severity
83: Mechanical Circulatory Support
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Indications for MCS
4. Timing of MCS Intervention
1. Cardiogenic Shock and Acute Heart Failure
2. Chronic Heart Failure
5. Patient Selection and Influence of Comorbidities on Outcomes
1. Renal Function
2. Pulmonary Function
3. Liver Function
4. Right Ventricular Heart Failure
5. Nutrition
6. Other Important Medical Considerations when Initiating MCS
1. Valvular Heart Disease
2. Coronary Artery Disease
3. Arrhythmias
4. Intracardiac Shunts
7. Patient Outcomes and Major Adverse Events Following Initiation of MCS
1. Bleeding
2. RV Failure
3. Intracranial Bleeding and Thromboembolism
4. Infection
5. Device Malfunction and Thrombosis
1. The Interagency Registry for Mechanically Assisted Circulatory Support (INTERMACS) Database
8. Weaning Patients from MCS
1. Weaning Short-Term MCS
2. Weaning Long-Term MCS
9. MCS Devices
1. Devices Intended for Short-Term MCS (Temporary Devices)
1. IABP
2. Impella
3. Tandem Heart
4. CentriMag
5. Extracorporeal Life Support
2. Implantable Devices Intended for Durable MCS
1. Historical Perspective
2. Implantable, Axial, Continuous-Flow MCS Devices
1. HeartMate II
3. Implantable, Centrifugal, Continuous-Flow MCS Devices
1. HVAD
2. HeartMate III
3. MVAD
3. Total Artificial Heart
1. Syncardia Total Artificial Heart
10. Future Directions
11. References
12. Figures
1. Algorithm 83.1 Current algorithm for assessing patients with advanced heart failure for heart transplantation and mechanical circulatory support. Transplant status is initially assessed to determine appropriate indication for MCS use; BTT versus DT. (Adapted from Mancini D, Colombo PC. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015;65(23):2542–2555, with permission.)
13. Tables
1. Table 83.1 MCS Device Implants by Implant Era and Indications for MCS Device Implantation in the INTERMACS Registry
84: Pericardium
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. History
4. Embryology and Anatomy
5. Normal Physiology
6. Diagnostic Studies
7. Congenital Abnormalities
8. Acute Pericarditis
1. Idiopathic and Viral Pericarditis
2. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
3. Tuberculous Pericarditis
4. Purulent Pericarditis
5. Uremic Pericarditis
6. Vasculitis, Connective Tissue Disease, and Drugs
7. Dressler and Postpericardiotomy Syndrome
8. Radiation-Induced Pericarditis
9. Pericardial Effusion and Tamponade
1. Postoperative Cardiac Tamponade
10. Pericardial Constriction
11. Neoplastic Pericardial Disease
12. Pericardiocentesis
13. Pericardial Biopsy and Surgical Drainage
14. Reconstruction of the Pericardium
15. Pericardiectomy
16. References
17. Figures
1. Algorithm 84.1 The algorithm outlines the initial approach to a patient with a large pericardial effusion.
18. Tables
1. Table 84.1 Causes of Pericarditis (Etiology)
2. Table 84.2 Distinguishing Cardiac Tamponade and Constrictive Pericarditis (Diagnosis)
3. Table 84.3 Distinguishing Constrictive Pericarditis from Restrictive Cardiomyopathy (Diagnosis)
4. Table 84.4 Potential Complications from Pericardiocentesis (Complications)
85: Vascular Diagnostics: The Noninvasive Vascular Laboratory
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Plethysmography
4. Ultrasound
5. Basics of Duplex Ultrasound
1. B-Mode Ultrasound
2. Doppler Ultrasound
3. Color Flow
4. Carotid and Vertebral Arteries
5. Common Carotid Artery Waveforms
6. ICA Waveforms
7. Vertebral Artery
8. External Carotid Artery
9. Classifying Carotid Stenosis
10. Current Criteria for ICA Stenosis
6. Bilateral High-Grade ICA Stenosis
1. Stented Carotid Arteries
2. CCA and ECA Stenosis
7. Lower Extremity Arterial Disease
8. Plethysmographic Techniques
1. Volume Flow
2. Pulse Volume Recordings
9. Ultrasound Techniques
1. Ankle–Brachial Index
2. Segmental Limb Pressures
3. Exercise Testing
4. Doppler Analog Waveform Analysis
5. Peripheral Artery Duplex Scanning
1. Velocity Patterns and Classification of Percent Stenosis
6. Upper Extremity Arterial Evaluation
10. Segmental Arm Pressures
11. Digital Pressures and Plethysmography
12. Cold Challenge Testing
13. Upper Extremity Duplex Scanning
14. Visceral Arteries
1. Mesenteric Arteries
1. Interpretation of Mesenteric Duplex Ultrasound Studies
2. Detection of Mesenteric Arterial Stenosis
15. Renal Arteries
1. Indirect Assessment of Renal Artery Stenosis
2. Direct Assessment of Renal Artery Stenosis
3. Predicting Success of Renal Artery Interventions
16. Venous Disease
1. Acute Deep Venous Thrombosis
2. Chronic Venous Insufficiency
17. Selected Miscellaneous Examinations
1. Evaluation for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
2. Evaluation of Aortic Endografts
3. Evaluation and Treatment of Groin Pseudoaneurysms
4. Transcutaneous Oxygen Measurements
18. References
19. Figures
20. Tables
1. Table 85.1 Major Randomized Trials Assessing Efficacy of Carotid Endarterectomy
2. Table 85.2 Consensus Panel Recommendations for Classification of Internal Carotid Artery Stenosis22
3. Table 85.3 Correlation between Ankle Brachial Index (ABI) and Clinical Severity of Lower Extremity Arterial Ischemia
4. Table 85.4 University of Washington Duplex Criteria for Classification of Lower Extremity Arterial Stenosis
5. Table 85.5 Duplex Ultrasound Criteria for Evaluation of Upper Extremity Arterial Stenosis
86: Vascular Infection
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Definitions and Pathogenesis
1. Pathogenesis of Primary Arterial Infections
2. Pathogenesis of Arterial Graft Infections
4. Microbiology
1. Primary Arterial Infections
2. Arterial Graft Infections
5. Classification of Arterial Graft Infections
6. Diagnosis
1. Common Clinical Presentations
2. Imaging for Vascular Infection
1. Computed Tomography (CT) and Computed Tomographic Angiography (CTA)
2. Duplex Ultrasonography
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
4. Leukocyte Scintigraphy
5. Single-Photon Emission Tomography (SPECT) Scanning
6. Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron-Emitting Tomography (FDG-PET)
7. Adjunctive Diagnostic Modalities
7. Conservative Management
1. Primary Arterial Infections
2. Arterial Graft Infections
8. Surgical Management of Aortic Arterial and Graft Infections
1. Aortic Infections Presenting with Hemorrhage or Sepsis
1. Endografting as Bridge Therapy
2. Definitive Surgery for AEF
3. Aortic Ligation and Extraanatomic Bypass for AEFs
4. In Situ Aortic Reconstruction for AEFs
5. Aortic Infection with Sepsis
2. Aortic Infections in the Stable Patient
1. Preoperative Evaluation
2. Anesthetic Considerations
3. Aortic Ligation and Extraanatomic Bypass versus In Situ Reconstruction
4. Aortic Graft Excision
5. Extraanatomic Bypass
6. In Situ Reconstruction with Cryopreserved Arterial Allografts
7. In Situ Reconstruction with Rifampin-Soaked and Silver-Impregnated Grafts
8. In Situ Reconstruction with Autogenous Femoral Vein
9. Nonaortic Arterial and Graft Infections
1. Lower Extremity Arterial Infections
1. Lower Extremity Graft Infections
2. Infected Common Femoral Artery Pseudoaneurysms
2. Arterial Infections in Other Sites
10. Antibiotic Therapy
11. Prevention of Secondary Arterial Infections
12. Conclusions
13. References
14. Figures
15. Tables
1. Table 86.1 Classification of Arterial Graft Infections
2. Table 86.2 Excision of Aortic Graft Operative Steps
3. Table 86.3 Complications Associated with Different Methods of Aortic Reconstruction after Aortic Graft Excision, Based on Selected Publications
4. Table 86.4 Operative Steps for Femoral Vein Harvest
87: Cerebrovascular Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Atherosclerotic Carotid Artery Disease
1. Epidemiology
2. Pathogenesis of Stroke
3. Clinical Syndromes
4. Initial Diagnostic Evaluation
5. Treatment of Atherosclerotic Carotid Artery Disease
6. Symptomatic
7. Asymptomatic
4. Carotid Endarterectomy
1. Technique
2. Complications
3. Transfemoral Carotid Artery stenting
1. Technique
4. Complications
5. Results
5. Transcarotid Artery Revascularization
1. Technique
2. Complications
3. Results
6. Carotid Endarterectomy Versus Transfemoral Carotid Stenting Versus Transcarotid Revascularization
7. Nonatherosclerotic Carotid Artery Disease
1. Carotid Artery Dissection
2. Carotid Artery Fibromuscular Dysplasia
3. Carotid Artery Aneurysms
4. Carotid Body Tumors
5. Carotid Trauma
8. Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency
1. Introduction
2. Clinical Findings
3. Pathogenesis
4. Initial Diagnostic Evaluation
5. Treatment
9. Atherosclerotic Brachiocephalic Disease
1. Introduction
2. Clinical Findings
3. Diagnostic Evaluation
4. Indications for Repair
5. Surgical Treatment
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 87.1 Modified UW (Strandness) Criteria for Carotid Stenosis
2. Table 87.2 Carotid Consensus Panel Duplex Criteria (CCPC) Duplex Ultrasound Criteria for Carotid Artery Stenosis
3. Table 87.3 Cranial Nerve Dysfunction and Incidence Following CEA
4. Table 87.4 High-Risk Medical and Surgical Patients for CEA
5. Table 87.5 Contraindications and High-Risk Features for Carotid Artery Stenting
6. Table 87.6 High-Risk Medical and Anatomic Inclusion Criteria for TCAR
88: Upper Extremity Arterial Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Presentation
4. Etiology
5. History and Physical Examination
6. Laboratory and Noninvasive Testing
7. Angiography
8. Management
9. Conclusions
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 88.1 Conditions and Risks for Upper Extremity Ischemia (Etiology)
2. Table 88.2 Takayasu Arteritis (Symptoms)
3. Table 88.3 Lab Tests for Systemic Causes for Hand Ischemia (Diagnosis)
89: Renal and Splanchnic Vascular Disease
1. Key Points
2. Splanchnic Vascular Occlusive and Aneurysmal Disease
1. Introduction
2. Anatomy and Physiology
3. Acute Mesenteric Ischemia
4. Management of AMI
1. Nonatherosclerotic Mesenteric Arterial Occlusive Disease
2. Mesenteric Vein Thrombosis
3. Nonocclusive Mesenteric Ischemia
5. Chronic Mesenteric Ischemia
6. Management of CMI
1. Median Arcuate Ligament Syndrome
7. Splanchnic Artery Aneurysms
1. Splenic Artery Aneurysm
2. Hepatic Artery Aneurysm
3. Superior Mesenteric Artery Aneurysm
4. Celiac Artery Aneurysm
5. Gastric and Gastroepiploic Artery Aneurysm
6. Jejunal, Ileal, and Colic Artery Aneurysm
7. Gastroduodenal and Pancreaticoduodenal Artery Aneurysm
8. Inferior Mesenteric Artery Aneurysm
3. Renal Artery Occlusive and Aneurysmal Disease
1. Introduction
2. Pathophysiology of Renovascular Hypertension
3. Renal Artery Occlusive Disease
1. Arteriosclerosis
2. Fibromuscular Dysplasia
4. Medical Management of Renovascular Hypertension
5. Surgical and Endovascular Management of Renal Artery Occlusive Disease
1. Arterial Reconstructive Surgery for Renal Artery Occlusive Disease
2. Endovascular Renal Revascularization
3. Developmental Dysplasia
6. Renal Artery Aneurysm
4. References
5. Figures
6. Tables
1. Table 89.1 Normal and Variant Mesenteric Arterial Anatomy
2. Table 89.2 Indications for Renal Revascularization for Hemodynamically Significant Renal Artery Stenosisa
3. Table 89.3 Contemporary Clinical Trials Comparing the Effectiveness of Endovascular Renal Artery Revascularization to Medical Therapy
90: Aortoiliac Occlusive Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Etiology
1. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
4. Presentation
1. Clinical Pathologic Types of Aortoiliac Disease
5. Diagnosis
1. Noninvasive Vascular Testing
2. Differential Diagnosis
6. Treatment
1. Medical Therapy (Table 90.4)12
1. Smoking Cessation
2. Exercise
3. Diet
4. Glycemic Control
5. Antiplatelet Therapy
6. Low-Dose Anticoagulation
7. Antihypertensive Therapy
8. Lipid-Lowering Therapy
9. Other Pharmacologic Therapy
2. Indications for Revascularization
3. Preintervention Imaging Studies
1. Computed Tomographic Angiography
2. Magnetic Resonance Angiography
3. Digital Subtraction Arteriography
4. Preoperative Evaluation
5. Choice of Revascularization Technique
1. Endovascular Surgical Management
1. Description of Technique
2. Complications of Endovascular Interventions
3. Outcome of Endovascular Interventions (Table 90.6)
2. Open Surgical Management
1. Description of Aortofemoral Bypass (Fig. 90.9)46
3. Endarterectomy
4. Extra-Anatomic Bypass
5. Outcomes
6. Complications
1. Early Complications
2. Late Complications
7. Quiz
8. References
9. Figures
1. Algorithm 90.1 Patient with symptomatic aortoiliac occlusive disease.
10. Tables
1. Table 90.1 TASC II Classification
2. Table 90.2 Ankle-Brachial Indices
3. Table 90.3 Differential Diagnosis of Claudication
4. Table 90.4 AHA Guidelines for Medical Therapy of Patients with PAD
5. Table 90.5 Complications of Endovascular Therapy
6. Table 90.6 Results of Endovascular Interventions for AIOD
7. Table 90.7 Results of Direct Surgical Revascularization
91: Peripheral Arterial Disease
1. Key Points
2. Introduction and Epidemiology
3. Infrainguinal Arterial Occlusive Disease
1. Risk Factors
2. Presentation and Natural History
3. Diagnosis
4. Medical Treatment
5. Indications for Revascularization
6. Approach to Revascularization
7. Endovascular Therapy
8. Operative Management
9. Autogenous Vein Bypass
1. In Situ Grafting
10. Nonreversed Saphenous Vein Grafts
11. Prosthetic Bypass
12. Reoperative Bypass Surgery
13. Postreconstruction Management
14. Graft Failure and Surveillance
15. Complications
4. Acknowledgment
5. References
6. Figures
7. Tables
1. Table 91.1 Patency of Femoropopliteal Angioplasty and Stentinga (Results)
2. Table 91.2 Five-Year Patency and Limb Salvage Results of Infrainguinal Bypass Grafting (Results)
92: Lower Extremity Amputation
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Indications
4. Evaluation for Revascularization
5. Choice of Amputation Level
1. General
2. Specific Situations
3. Energy Requirement
4. Clinical Assessment
6. Operative Technique
1. General Considerations
2. Digital and Ray Amputations
3. Transmetatarsal Amputation
4. Syme Amputation
5. Below-Knee Amputation
6. Above-Knee Amputation
7. Hip Disarticulation
8. Cryoamputation
9. Other Lower Extremity Amputations
10. Wound Dressings
11. Complications
1. Morbidity and Mortality
2. Deep Venous Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism
3. Stump Complications
4. Additional Amputation
5. Special Situations
7. Rehabilitation and Prosthetic Management
1. General Considerations
2. Specific Considerations
1. Digital and Ray Amputations
2. Transmetatarsal Amputation
3. Syme Amputation
4. Below-Knee Amputation
5. Above-Knee Amputation
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 92.1 Indications for Lower Extremity Amputation (Indications/Contraindications)
2. Table 92.2 Rehabilitation Energy Cost of Amputation at Various Levels
3. Table 92.3 Preoperative Level Selection: Toe Amputation (Results)
4. Table 92.4 Preoperative Level Selection: Foot and Forefoot Amputation (Results)
5. Table 92.5 Preoperative Level Selection: Below-Knee Amputation (Results)
6. Table 92.6 Preoperative Level Selection: Above-Knee Amputation (Results)
7. Table 92.7 Amputation Mortality (Results)
8. Table 92.8 Survival after Amputation for Ischemia (Results)
9. Table 92.9 Ambulation after Lower Extremity Amputation for Diabetes or Occlusive Disease (Results)
93: Thoracic and Thoracoabdominal Aorta: Aneurysm and Dissection
1. Key Points
2. Background
3. Epidemiology
4. Pathogenesis
5. Clinical Manifestations
6. Diagnostic Imaging
7. Preoperative Evaluation
8. Operative Techniques
1. Elephant Trunk Technique for Extensive Aortic Aneurysms
9. Postoperative Management
10. Surgical Outcomes
1. Neurologic Outcomes
2. Delayed Neurologic Deficits
3. Renal Failure
11. Complications
1. Elephant Trunk Technique
12. Impact of Aortic Dissection
13. Endovascular Repair
1. Hybrid Repair
2. Parallel Grafts
3. Total Endovascular Repair
14. References
15. Figures
16. Tables
1. Table 93.1 Complications of Open TAAA Repair
94: Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Definitions and Classifications
4. Magnitude of the Problem
5. Pathogenesis and Risk Factors
6. Principles of management
7. Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
8. Operative Indications
9. Choice of Open or Endovascular Repair
10. Operative Repair
1. Preoperative Evaluation
2. Open Repair of Intact Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
1. Technique
2. Complications and Outcome
3. Endovascular Repair of Intact Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
1. Technique
2. Complications and Outcome
11. Repair of Ruptured Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
1. Open Repair
12. Endovascular Repair for Rupture
13. Additional Considerations
1. Isolated Iliac Artery Aneurysms
14. Inflammatory Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
1. Juxtarenal and Suprarenal Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
2. Infected Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
3. Aortoenteric Fistulae
4. Venous Anomalies Relevant to Aortic Surgery
5. Renal Anomalies
6. Coexistent Renal or Visceral Artery Occlusive Disease
7. Additional Concurrent Intra-Abdominal Disease
15. References
16. Figures
17. Tables
1. Table 94.1 Estimated Annual Rupture Risk
95: Lower Extremity Aneurysms
1. Key Points
2. Peripheral Aneurysms
1. Incidence
2. Pathogenesis
3. Clinical Manifestations
3. Femoral Artery Aneurysms
1. Degenerative (Atherosclerotic) Aneurysms
1. Incidence
2. Pattern of Disease
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Natural History
5. Diagnosis
6. Treatment
1. Surgical Strategy
2. Technique
7. Results
2. Anastomotic Pseudoaneurysms
1. Incidence
2. Pathogenesis
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
6. Results
3. Femoral Pseudoaneurysms
1. Incidence
2. Pathogenesis
3. Diagnosis
4. Natural History
5. Treatment
6. Results
4. Mycotic Aneurysms
1. Pathogenesis
2. Clinical Manifestations
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
4. Popliteal Artery Aneurysms
1. Incidence
2. Pattern of Disease
3. Clinical Manifestations
4. Natural History
5. Diagnosis
6. Treatment
1. Indications
7. Surgical Technique
8. Results
5. References
6. Figures
1. Algorithm 95.1 Management of femoral pseudoaneurysm.
96: Venous Disease
1. Key Points
2. Venous Thromboembolism
1. Incidence, Risk Factors, and Categories
2. Venous Thromboembolism Diagnosis
3. Pulmonary Embolism
4. Axillary/Subclavian Vein Thrombosis
5. Standard Therapy for VTE
1. Treatment
2. Complications
6. Duration of Anticoagulation
7. Emerging Medical Treatments and Trends in VTE Managements
8. Calf Vein DVT
9. Nonpharmacologic Treatments
10. IVC Filters
11. Thrombolytic and Surgical Procedures for Deep VTE
12. Pulmonary Embolectomy
13. Superficial Thrombophlebitis
1. Treatment
3. Chronic Venous Disease
1. Normal Venous Anatomy
2. Normal Venous Physiology
3. Prevalence and Impact
4. Pathophysiology and Etiology
5. Clinical Signs and Symptoms
6. Diagnostic Evaluation
7. Treatment Options and Results
1. Medical Therapy
2. Surgical Therapy
1. Telangiectasia, Reticular Veins, and Branch Varicose Veins
2. Saphenous Vein Stripping/Ablation
3. Perforator Vein Ablation
4. Iliac Stenting and Venous Bypass
5. Venous Valve Repair or Replacement
6. Valve Substitutes
3. Venous Ulcer Wound Care
4. Miscellaneous Pelvic Disorders
4. References
5. Figures
1. Algorithm 96.1 Treatment of chronic venous insufficiency.
6. Tables
1. Table 96.1 Elements of a Complete Hypercoagulability Evaluation
2. Table 96.2 Clinical Classification of Chronic Venous Disease (Classification)
3. Table 96.3 Venous Clinical Severity Score (Diagnosis)
Section N: Pediatric Surgery
97: Fetal, Pediatric, and Neonatal Physiology
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
1. Fetal and Transitional Physiology
1. Introduction
2. Early Fetal Development and Organogenesis
3. The Placenta and Placental Function
4. Amniotic Fluid Production and Resorption
5. Fetal Circulation and Transitional Physiology
6. Fetal Lung Development
2. Neonatal Physiology
1. Prematurity and Physiologic Implications
2. Neurologic Considerations
3. Cardiovascular Considerations
4. Respiratory Considerations
5. Gastrointestinal Considerations
6. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Genitourinary Considerations
7. Hematologic Considerations
8. Infectious Disease Considerations
3. Pediatric Physiology
1. Cardiovascular Considerations
2. Respiratory Considerations
3. Gastrointestinal and Nutritional Considerations
4. Genitourinary, Fluid, and Electrolyte Considerations
5. Hematologic Considerations
6. Infectious Disease Considerations
3. References
4. Figures
5. Tables
1. Table 97.1 Normal Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Ranges for Infants and Children
2. Table 97.2 Parenteral Nutrition Baseline Caloric and Protein Needs by Age
3. Table 97.3 Pediatric Fluid Requirements by Weight
98: Fetal Intervention
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
1. The Development of a New Surgical Subspecialty
3. Core Principles
4. Fetal Surgery—Key Elements Leading to Success of Fetal Surgery
1. Fetal Imaging
2. Prenatal Genetic Diagnosis
5. Maternal–Fetal Risks
6. Current Fetal Conditions Amenable to Fetal Intervention
1. Twin-to-Twin Transfusion Syndrome
2. Rationale for Prenatal Treatment
3. Myelomeningocele aka Spina Bifida
4. Rationale for Prenatal Surgery
5. Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
6. Treatment Methods
7. Congenital Cardiac Lesions/Congenital Heart Defects
8. Rationale for Prenatal Intervention—Treatment Methods
9. Congenital Lung Lesions
10. Treatment Methods
11. Sacrococcygeal Teratoma
12. Rationale for Prenatal Surgery—Treatment Methods
13. Gastroschisis
14. Lower Urinary Tract Obstruction
15. Rationale for Fetal Treatment
16. Cervical Teratoma, Airways Masses, and EXIT Procedures
7. Future Directions
1. Fetal Molecular Therapies
2. In Utero Gene Therapy
3. In Utero Stem Cell Transplantation
4. Tissue Engineering
8. Acknowledgments
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 98.1 Criteria for the Advancement of Fetal Therapy
99: Pediatric Head and Neck
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
1. Imaging
1. Ultrasound
2. Computed Tomography
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
2. Congenital
1. Branchial Anomalies
2. Anatomy and Embryology
3. Thyroglossal Duct Cysts
4. Dermoid Cysts
5. Thymic Cysts
3. Infectious
1. Suppurative Lymphadenitis
2. Atypical Mycobacterial Infections
3. Cat Scratch Disease
4. Vascular Malformations
1. Infantile Hemangioma
2. Lymphatic Malformation
5. Airway
1. Nasal Airway Obstruction
2. Oral Airway Obstruction
3. Supraglottic Airway Obstruction
4. Glottic Airway Obstruction
5. Subglottic Airway Obstruction
6. Tracheal Airway Obstruction
3. Summary
4. References
5. Figures
6. Tables
1. Table 99.1 Benign Congenital Pediatric Neck Masses Based on Location
2. Table 99.2 Pharyngeal Arch Structures
3. Table 99.3 Ultrasonographic Features of Thyroglossal Duct Cysts16,17
100: Pediatric Chest
1. Key Points
2. Chest Wall Deformities
1. Embryology, Development, and Etiology of Chest Wall Deformities
2. Pectus Excavatum
3. Surgical Correction of the Pectus Excavatum
4. “Open” Operations
5. Minimally Invasive Repair/Nuss Procedure
6. Other Techniques
7. Pectus Carinatum
8. Poland Syndrome
9. Sternal Clefts
10. Jeune Asphyxiating Thoracic Dystrophy
11. The “Slipping Rib” Syndrome
12. “Flaring” of the Costal Margin
13. Costochondral “Tumor”
3. Congenital Lung Lesions
1. Pulmonary Sequestration
2. Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformations
3. Bronchogenic Cysts
4. Congenital Lobar Overinflation
5. Diagnosis
6. Cysts of the Mediastinum
7. Thymic Cysts
8. Enteric Duplication Cysts/Enterogenous Cysts
9. Lymphatic Malformations
10. Pericardial Cysts
4. Thoracic Tumors in Children
1. Metastatic Lung Tumors
2. Osteogenic Sarcoma
3. Soft Tissue Sarcomas
4. Wilms Tumor
5. Primary Lung Tumors
6. Bronchial Adenomas
7. Bronchogenic Carcinoma
8. Pleuropulmonary Blastoma
9. Other Malignant Tumors
10. Hamartoma
11. Mediastinal Tumors
12. Chest Wall Tumors
13. Respiratory Papillomatosis
5. Esophageal Atresia/Tracheoesophageal Fistula
1. Embryology
2. Classification
3. Incidence and Epidemiology
4. Clinical Findings, Diagnosis, and Pathophysiology
5. Associated Anomalies
6. Preoperative Management
7. Surgical Technique
8. Results, Complications, and Outcomes
6. Other Congenital Anomalies of the Trachea and Esophagus
1. Laryngotracheoesophageal Cleft and Tracheal Agenesis
2. Congenital Esophageal Stenosis
3. Esophageal Duplication
4. Vascular Rings
5. Congenital Tracheal Stenosis
7. Foreign Bodies of the Tracheobronchial Tree
1. Pathophysiology
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Management
8. Congenital Abnormalities of the Diaphragm
1. Embryology of the Diaphragm
2. Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia Pathology and Pathophysiology
3. Diagnosis
4. Prognostic Factors
5. Treatment
6. Surgery
7. Outcome
8. Evolving Therapies
9. Foramen of Morgagni Hernia
10. Eventration of the Diaphragm
11. Diaphragmatic Pacing
9. Pleural Diseases
1. Empyema
2. Pneumothorax
3. Chylothorax
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 100.1 Primary Pulmonary Neoplasms
101: Pediatric Abdomen
1. Key Points
2. Abdominal Wall Defects
1. Gastroschisis
2. Omphalocele
1. Anatomy, Embryology, and Pathophysiology
2. Perioperative Management for Gastroschisis and Omphalocele
1. Gastroschisis
2. Omphaloceles
3. Umbilical Hernia
1. Anatomy and Embryology
2. Clinical Issues and Management
4. Inguinal Hernia and Hydrocele
1. Anatomy, Embryology, and Pathophysiology
2. Clinical Issues
5. Operative Considerations and Outcome
6. Hydrocele
3. Gastrointestinal Disorders
1. Neonatal Intestinal Obstruction
2. Intestinal Atresia or Stenosis
1. Embryology and Anatomy
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
5. Results and Outcome
3. Congenital Duodenal Obstruction
1. Embryology and Anatomy
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
5. Results and Outcome
4. Anorectal Malformations (Imperforate Anus)
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy and Classification
3. Associated Anomalies
4. Clinical Presentation
5. Diagnosis
6. Treatment
1. Low Malformations
2. Intermediate and High Malformations
7. Results, Complications, and Outcome
5. Necrotizing Enterocolitis
1. Pathophysiology
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
1. Nonoperative
2. Operative
6. Complications, Results, and Outcome
7. Meconium Ileus
1. Pathophysiology
2. Diagnostic Evaluation
3. Clinical Presentation
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
1. Nonoperative
2. Operative
3. Postoperative Care and Results
8. Meconium Plug Syndrome
9. Malrotation
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy
1. Nonrotation
2. Mixed or Incomplete Rotation
3. Mesocolic Hernias
3. Clinical Presentation
4. Diagnosis
5. Treatment
6. Results and Complications
10. Congenital Aganglionosis (Hirschsprung Disease)
1. Embryology
2. Anatomy
3. Pathophysiology
4. Clinical Features
1. Incidence and Associations
2. Presentation
5. Diagnosis
1. Plain Abdominal Radiographs
2. Contrast Enema
3. Rectal Biopsy
4. Anorectal Manometry
6. Treatment
7. Definitive Operations for Hirschsprung Disease
1. Duhamel Procedure (Martin Modification)
2. Soave Procedure
3. Swenson Procedure
4. Laparoscopically Assisted Endorectal Pull-through
5. Rectal Myectomy
6. Total Colonic Aganglionosis
8. Complications and Outcome
4. Other Childhood Gastrointestinal Disorders
1. Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
1. Anatomy and Pathophysiology
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
2. Intussusception
1. Anatomy and Physiology
2. Clinical Presentation
3. Diagnosis
4. Treatment
1. Operative Management
5. Complications and Outcome
3. Meckel Diverticulum and Related Disorders
1. Embryology and Anatomy
2. Clinical Presentation
1. Hemorrhage
2. Obstruction
3. Diverticulitis
4. Umbilical Anomalies
5. Meckel Diverticulum as an Incidental Finding
3. Treatment
4. Foreign Bodies
5. Esophagus
6. Distal Gastrointestinal Tract
7. Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage
8. Neonates (0 to 30 Days of Age)
9. Infants (30 Days to 1 Year)
10. Children (1 to 12 Years)
11. Older Children and Adolescents (Older than 12 Years)
12. Intestinal Duplication
13. Cystic Duplications
14. Tubular Duplications
4. Mesenteric and Omental Cysts
5. Primary Peritonitis
6. Ascites
7. Rectal Prolapse
5. Pediatric Liver
1. Tumors of the Liver
1. Benign Tumors
1. Vascular Tumors
2. Mesenchymal Hamartomas
3. Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
4. Hepatic Adenoma
5. Hepatic Cysts
6. Teratomas
2. Malignant Tumors
1. Hepatoblastoma
2. Hepatocellular Carcinoma
3. Malignant Mesenchymal Tumors
4. Sarcomas
2. Liver Resection
3. Hepatic Infections
1. Pyogenic Abscess
2. Amebic Abscess
6. Pediatric Biliary Tract
1. Embryology
2. Biliary Atresia
1. Anatomy
1. Microscopic Anatomy
2. Pathophysiology
3. Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
1. Radioisotope Scanning
4. Treatment
1. Portoenterostomy
2. Hepatic Transplantation
3. Congenital Choledochal Cystic Disease of the Biliary Tract
1. Anatomy
4. Pathophysiology
1. Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
2. Treatment
1. Type I Cysts
2. Other Types of Cysts
3. Complications and Outcome
7. Pediatric Pancreas
1. Acute Pancreatitis
2. Pancreas Divisum
3. Pancreatic Cysts
4. Pancreatic Neoplasms
5. Endocrine Lesions of the Pancreas
1. Zollinger–Ellison Syndrome
2. Hypoglycemia
8. References
9. Figures
10. Tables
1. Table 101.1 Comparison of Gastroschisis and Omphalocele (Diagnosis)
2. Table 101.2 Neonatal Intestinal Obstruction (Diagnosis)
3. Table 101.3 Anatomic Classification of Anorectal Malformations (Classification)
4. Table 101.4 Necrotizing Enterocolitis (Staging)
5. Table 101.5 Operations for Necrotizing Enterocolitis (Complications)
6. Cystic Fibrosis Clinical Manifestations
7. Table 101.6 Predisposing Factors Leading to Intussusception
8. Table 101.7 Signs and Symptoms of Meckel Diverticulum (Diagnosis)
9. Table 101.8 Etiology and Causes of Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhagea
10. Table 101.9 Causes of Lower Gastrointestinal Hemorrhagea
11. Table 101.10 Common Causes of Neonatal Ascites (Etiology)
12. Table 101.11 Common Causes of Childhood Ascites (Etiology)
13. Table 101.12 Incidence of Liver Tumors in Childhood
14. Table 101.13 Causes and Associations of Neonatal Cholestasis (Etiology)
102: Pediatric Genitourinary System
1. Key Points
2. Fetal Development of Genitourinary System
3. Anomalies of the Kidney
1. Cystic Conditions of the Kidney
2. Solitary Kidney
4. Anomalies of the Ureter
1. Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction
2. Ureteral Duplication
3. Ectopic Ureter
4. Ureterocele
5. Megaureter
6. Vesicoureteral Reflux
5. Bladder Anomalies
1. Urachal Abnormality
2. Exstrophy–Epispadias Complex
6. Anomalies of the Urethra
1. Posterior Urethral Valves
2. Hypospadias
3. Differences in Sex Development
4. Anomalies of the Penis and Prepuce
7. Anomalies of the Testicle and Scrotum
1. Undescended Testicle or Cryptorchidism
2. Torsion of Testicle and Appendages
3. Prepubertal Testicular Tumors
4. Varicocele
8. Vaginal Anomalies
1. Labial Adhesions
2. Imperforate Hymen
3. Urogenital Sinus Anomalies
4. Prune-Belly Syndrome
5. Neurogenic Bladder
9. Acknowledgment
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 102.1 Classification of Congenital Renal Cystic Diseases
103: Childhood Tumors
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Incidence of Childhood Solid Tumors
4. Neuroblastoma
1. Epidemiology and Genetic Risk
2. Pathology and Biologic Features
3. Presentation, Diagnosis, and Staging
4. Perinatal Neuroblastoma
1. Diagnosis
2. Staging
5. Treatment
1. Very Low Risk and Low Risk
2. Intermediate Risk
3. High Risk
6. Future Directions
5. Wilms Tumor
1. Epidemiology and Genetic Risk
2. Pathology and Biologic Features
3. Presentation, Diagnosis, and Staging
4. Treatment
5. Surgical Considerations
6. Renal Vein/Inferior Vena Cava
7. Bilateral Wilms Tumor
8. Partial Nephrectomy
9. Future Directions
6. Non-Wilms Renal Tumors
1. Congenital Mesoblastic Nephroma
2. Clear Cell Sarcoma
3. Rhabdoid Tumor of the Kidney
4. Renal Cell Carcinoma
7. Rhabdomyosarcoma
1. Epidemiology and Genetic Risk
2. Pathology and Biologic Features
3. Presentation and Diagnosis
4. Staging
5. Clinical Group Assessment and Risk Status
6. Treatment
7. Future Directions
8. Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcoma
1. Epidemiology
2. Pathology and Biologic Features
3. Presentation, Diagnosis, and Staging
4. Treatment
9. Hepatic Tumors
1. Hepatoblastoma
1. Epidemiology and Genetic Risk
2. Pathology and Biologic Features
3. Presentation, Diagnosis, and Staging
4. Treatment
2. Hepatocellular Carcinoma
10. References
11. Figures
12. Tables
1. Table 103.1 Shimada Histopathologic Classification of Neuroblastoma (Classification)
2. Table 103.2 International Staging Criteria for Neuroblastoma (Staging)
3. Table 103.3 Image-Defined Risk Factors (IDRFs) (Staging)
4. Table 103.4 International Neuroblastoma Risk Group Staging System (Staging)
5. Table 103.5 International Neuroblastoma Risk Group Classification System (Staging)
6. Table 103.6 Standard Treatment for Children with Neuroblastoma
7. Table 103.7 Syndromes Associated with Increased Susceptibility to Wilms Tumor
8. Table 103.8 Wilms Tumor Staging Criteria
9. Table 103.9 Recommended Therapy According to COG Protocols
10. Table 103.10 TNM Pretreatment Staging System for Childhood Rhabdomyosarcoma
11. Table 103.11 Surgical–Histopathologic Clinical Grouping System for the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Studies I and II
12. Table 103.12 Nonrhabdomyosaroma Tumor Characteristics
13. Table 103.13 Relative Risk of Death for Histologic Subtypes of Hepatoblastoma
14. Table 103.14 Children''s Oncology Group Staging for Hepatoblastoma
104: The Pregnant Patient
1. Key Points
2. Development of the Fetus
3. Anatomy of the Changing Uterus
4. Premature Onset of Labor
1. Tocolysis
5. Monitoring of the Fetus
1. Fetal Heart Rate
6. Imaging the Pregnant Patient
1. Ionizing Radiation
1. Lethal Effects of Ionizing Radiation
2. Teratogenic Effects of Ionizing Radiation
3. Growth Retardation from Ionizing Radiation
4. Oncogenic Potential of Ionizing Radiation
2. Ultrasound
3. Computed Tomography
4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
7. Appendicitis in the Pregnant Patient
1. Imaging Modalities
2. Diagnostic Laparoscopy
3. Appendectomy
8. Biliary Tract Disease in Pregnancy
1. Choledocholithiasis
9. Breast Cancer in the Pregnant Patient
1. Surgical Management
2. Systemic Therapy
10. Management of the Pregnant Patient with Trauma
1. Primary and Secondary Survey
2. Radiographic Assessment
3. Fetal Monitoring and Emergency Delivery
11. Summary
12. References
13. Figures
14. Tables
1. Table 104.1 Radiation Dosing to the Conceptus and Uterus from Selected Radiographic Examinations
2. Table 104.2 Variation in Signs and Symptoms of Appendicitis during Pregnancy
3. Table 104.3 Guidelines for Laparoscopic Surgery during Pregnancy
Section O: Skin and Soft Tissue
105: Cutaneous Malignancies
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Melanoma
1. Etiology and Risk Factors
2. Clinical Diagnosis and Classification
3. Staging and Prognostic Factors
4. Microstaging
5. Clinical and Pathologic Staging
6. Other Prognostic Factors
7. Treatment of Primary Melanoma
1. Biopsy
8. Staging Workup
9. Excision of Primary Melanoma
10. Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy
11. Treatment of Regional Metastatic Melanoma
1. Therapeutic Lymphadenectomy
12. Adjuvant Therapy
1. Neoadjuvant Therapy
2. Adjuvant Radiation Therapy
13. Treatment of In-Transit Disease
14. Treatment of Disseminated Melanoma
1. Evaluation for Metastatic Disease and Clinical Course
15. Surgery
16. Chemotherapy
17. High-Dose Interleukin-2
18. Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
19. BRAF and MEK Inhibitors
20. The Impact of Treatment on Unresectable Metastatic Melanoma
4. Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers
1. Etiology
2. Basal Cell Carcinoma
3. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma
4. Surgical Treatment of the Common Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers
5. Mohs Surgery
6. Adjuvant and Primary Radiation Therapy
7. Locally Advanced and Metastatic BCC
8. Locally Advanced and Metastatic SCC
9. Other Cutaneous Malignancies of Interest
5. References
6. Figures
7. Tables
1. Table 105.1 Risk Factors for Primary Melanoma
2. Table 105.2 The ABCDE Diagnostic Aid for Primary Melanomaa
3. Table 105.3 Common Subtypes of Cutaneous Melanomas
4. Table 105.4 Melanoma TNM and Staging Categories with Survival Rates
5. Table 105.5 American Joint Commission on Cancer Melanoma Staging System, TNM Definitions
6. Table 105.6 Randomized Controlled Trials: Narrow versus Wide Excision Margins
7. Table 105.7 Recommended Surgical Margins for Melanoma Excision
8. Table 105.8 Basal Cell and Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Higher-Risk Factors for Subclinical Invasion and Recurrence
106: Sarcomas of Soft Tissue and Bone
1. Key Points
2. Introduction
3. Epidemiology
4. Genetic Cancer Syndromes
5. Soft Tissue Sarcomas
1. Clinical Presentation
2. Diagnosis
1. Diagnostic Imaging
2. Diagnostic Biopsy
6. Pathologic Classification
1. Staging
7. Treatment
1. Principles of Surgery
2. Adjuvant and Neoadjuvant Therapy
3. Retroperitoneal and Intra-Abdominal Sarcomas
4. Recurrent or Metastatic Disease
5. Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
6. Desmoid Tumors/Desmoid Fibromatosis
8. Conclusions
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 106.1 Cytogenetic Abnormalities in Soft Tissue Sarcoma Subtypes
2. Table 106.2 WHO Histologic Classification of Soft Tissue Tumors
3. Table 106.3 WHO Histologic Classification of Bone Tumors
4. Table 106.4 Histologic Parameters in the Federation Nationale des Centres de Lutte Contre le Cancer (FNCLCC) Grading System
5. Table 106.5 Tumor Differentiation Score According to Histologic Subtype in the Federation Nationale des Centres de Lutte Contre le Cancer (FNCLCC)
6. Table 106.6A American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC): TNM Classification of Soft Tissue Sarcomas of the Trunk and Extremity
7. Table 106.6B Stage Grouping of Soft Tissue Sarcomas of the Trunk and Extremity
8. Table 106.6C American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC): T Classification of Soft Tissue Sarcomas of the Head and Neck
9. Table 106.6D American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC): T Classification of Soft Tissue Sarcomas of the Abdominal and Thoracic Viscera
10. Table 106.7A American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC): TNM Classification of Retroperitoneal Sarcomas
11. Table 106.7B Stage Grouping of Retroperitoneal Sarcomas
12. Table 106.8A American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC): Tumor and Mitotic Rate Classification of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor
13. Table 106.8B Stage Grouping of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor, Gastric and Omental
14. Table 106.8C Stage Grouping of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor, Small Intestinal, Esophageal, Colorectal, Mesenteric, and Peritoneal
107: Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
1. Key Points
2. Management of The Problem Wound
1. Wound Evaluation
2. The Treatment Paradigm for Wound Management
1. Surgery for Problem Wounds
2. The Reconstructive Ladder
3. Healing by Secondary Intention
1. Primary Wound Closure
2. Skin Grafts
3. Random Flaps
4. Axial Pattern Flaps
5. Muscle and Musculocutaneous Flaps (Table 107.4 Workhorse Muscle, Myocutaneous and Perforator Flaps)
6. Microvascular Free Tissue Transfers
3. Pediatric Plastic Surgery
1. Congenital Anomalies
1. Cleft Lip and Palate
2. Craniosynostosis
3. Microtia
4. Childhood Tumors
5. Traumatic Deformities
4. Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery
1. Nomenclature
2. Anatomy and Examination
3. Infection
1. Cellulitis
2. Paronychia
3. Deep Space Infections
4. Suppurative Flexor Tenosynovitis
5. Other Infections
4. Trauma
1. Soft Tissue Injuries
1. Fingertip Injuries
2. Nail Bed Injuries
2. Tendon Laceration
1. Flexor Tendons Lacerations
2. Extensor Tendon Laceration
3. Fractures
4. Replantation
5. Complex Hand and Forearm Reconstruction
6. Congenital Anomalies
1. Syndactyly
2. Polydactyly
3. Central Polydactyly
4. Thumb Hypoplasia and Agenesis
7. Acquired Conditions
1. Osteoarthritis
2. Tendinitis
3. Peripheral Nerve Compression
4. Dupuytren
5. Rheumatoid Arthritis
5. Plastic Surgery of the Breast
1. Breast Characteristics
2. Reduction Mammoplasty
3. Preoperative Evaluation
4. Surgical Approaches
1. Postoperative Follow-Up
5. Mastopexy
6. Augmentation Mammoplasty
7. Preoperative Evaluation
8. Surgical Approaches
9. Postoperative Follow-Up
10. Gynecomastia Reduction
11. Preoperative Evaluation
12. Surgical Approaches
13. Postoperative Follow-Up
14. Breast Reconstruction
15. Preoperative Evaluation
16. Surgical Approaches
17. Postoperative Follow-Up
18. Transgender Surgery
19. Breast Implants
6. Aesthetic Surgery
1. Cosmetic Procedures for the Head and Neck
1. Brow Lift
2. Rhytidectomy
3. Blepharoplasty
4. Rhinoplasty
5. Genioplasty
2. Cosmetic Procedures of the Trunk and Extremities (Body Sculpting)
1. Abdominoplasty
2. Liposuction
7. Nonsurgical Aesthetic Procedures
1. Minimally Invasive Procedures
8. Summary
9. References
10. Figures
11. Tables
1. Table 107.1 The Spectrum of Plastic Surgery
2. Table 107.2 Local and Systemic Factors that Affect Wound Management
3. Table 107.3 The Reconstructive Ladder
4. Table 107.4 Workhorse Muscle, Myocutaneous, and Perforator Flaps
5. Table 107.5 Stages of Repair for Complete Cleft Lip and Palate
6. Table 107.6 Members of a Cleft Team
7. Table 107.7 Breast Ptosis Definitions52
8. Table 107.8 Surgical Approaches for Reduction Mammoplasty53,54
9. Table 107.9 Surgical Approaches for Augmentation Mammoplasty60,61
10. Table 107.10 Surgical Approaches for Male Gynecomastia Reduction64,65
11. Table 107.11 Postmastectomy Breast Reconstruction Techniques67,68,69,70,71,72,73